Bhakta Tukaram was a contemporary of which Mughal Emperor?

1. Origins and Features of the Bhakti Movement (basic)

The Bhakti movement represents one of the most profound social and religious transformations in Indian history. At its core, 'Bhakti' signifies a path of unconditional devotion and complete surrender to a personal god, moving away from the rigid, ritualistic, and often exclusionary practices of ancient Brahmanical orthodoxy. The movement originated in South India around the 6th century CE, led by the Alvars (those 'immersed' in devotion to Vishnu) and the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) Themes in Indian History Part II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.143. These poet-saints traveled from place to place, composing and singing hymns in Tamil, rather than Sanskrit, making the divine accessible to the common person.

One of the most striking features of the Bhakti movement was its egalitarian nature. It served as a powerful protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas. Historians note that Bhakti saints hailed from remarkably diverse backgrounds, including artisans, cultivators, and even those considered 'untouchable' Themes in Indian History Part II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.144. By emphasizing that true devotion transcends social status, the movement fostered a sense of social cohesion and 'oneness'. This spirit of inclusivity later spread to Western India, where Marathi saints like Tukaram, Ramdas, and Eknath used local hymns to create a deep social bond among the people History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225.

Feature	Bhakti Tradition	Orthodox Tradition
Language	Vernacular (Tamil, Marathi, Hindi)	Sanskrit
Path to God	Personal Devotion (Bhakti)	Rituals and Sacrifices
Social Outlook	Egalitarian / Inclusive	Hierarchical / Caste-based

To establish their spiritual authority, Bhakti traditions often claimed their vernacular compositions were as sacred as the Vedas. For example, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, a major anthology of the Alvars, was frequently hailed as the 'Tamil Veda' Themes in Indian History Part II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.144. This challenged the monopoly of the priestly class over sacred knowledge and empowered the masses to seek salvation through their own mother tongue.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.143-144; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225

2. The Varkari Sampradaya of Maharashtra (basic)

The Varkari Sampradaya is one of the most vibrant and enduring devotional traditions of Maharashtra, representing a beautiful blend of bhakti (devotion) and social equality. The name 'Varkari' is derived from Wari, which means a regular or annual pilgrimage. This tradition is centered on the worship of Lord Vitthal (also known as Vithoba or Panduranga), who is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu or Krishna. Unlike many ascetic movements that require leaving one's family, the Varkari path emphasizes that spiritual liberation can be achieved by householders through simple devotion, ethical conduct, and the chanting of God's name THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII, Chapter 4, p.104.

The heartbeat of this movement is the Pandharpur Wari, an 800-year-old tradition. Every year, pilgrims walk in massive groups for 21 days to reach the famous Vithoba temple in Pandharpur. This journey is considered a tīrthayātrā—not just a physical trek across the landscape, but an inner journey toward a higher life Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science-Class VII, Chapter 8, p.170-171. The movement was shaped by a lineage of great poet-saints (Sants), most notably Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram. These saints composed Abhangas—devotional hymns in the Marathi language that made complex spiritual truths accessible to everyone, regardless of their caste or gender.

Historically, the Varkari movement provided a sense of cultural identity and social cohesion in the Deccan. By rejecting the rigid authority of orthodox Vedic rituals and focusing on personal love for the deity, the movement democratized religion History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board), p.196. The influence of these saints was so profound that it shaped the regional consciousness of Maharashtra; for instance, the life of Sant Tukaram in the early 17th century overlapped with the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, marking a period where devotional fervor existed alongside significant political shifts in the Indian subcontinent THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII, Chapter 8, p.221.

Feature	Varkari Sampradaya
Primary Deity	Lord Vitthal (Vithoba) of Pandharpur
Core Practice	The annual 'Wari' (pilgrimage) on foot
Key Literature	Abhangas (Marathi devotional poetry)
Social Outlook	Egalitarian; inclusive of all castes and householders

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.104; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science-Class VII (NCERT 2025 ed.), How the Land Becomes Sacred, p.170-171; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.196; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.221

3. Literary Contributions of Marathi Saints (intermediate)

The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra was a transformative cultural force that democratized spirituality by shifting the medium of expression from elite Sanskrit to the vernacular Marathi language. This movement was primarily centered around the Varkari tradition, which emphasized the worship of Lord Vitthal (a form of Vishnu) at Pandharpur. By composing hymns and poetry in the language of the common people, these saints broke the monopoly of the priestly classes over religious knowledge and fostered a sense of social cohesion and regional identity History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225.

The literary journey of these saints began with Sant Jnaneshwar (13th century), who wrote the Jnaneshwari, a profound commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi. This was followed by Sant Namdev, whose influence was so vast that his verses are even found in the Guru Granth Sahib. Later, Sant Eknath expanded this reach through Bharuds (folk-style poems) and his commentary on the Bhagavata Purana. The movement reached its peak with Sant Tukaram, a 17th-century contemporary of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, whose Abhangas (devotional lyrics) remain the most popular form of Marathi spiritual literature even today.

To help you memorize the key figures and their literary contributions, look at this comparison:

Saint	Key Literary Work/Form	Core Contribution
Jnaneshwar	Jnaneshwari, Amritanubhav	Laid the philosophical foundation of Marathi Bhakti.
Eknath	Bhavarth Ramayan, Bharuds	Used folk forms to preach social equality and householder's dharma.
Tukaram	Abhangas	Expressed personal, intense devotion; a contemporary of the early 17th-century Mughals.
Ramdas	Dasbodh	Blended spiritual advice with practical and political wisdom.

These saints did not just write poetry; they created a social glue. Their compositions were sung in groups, bridging the gap between castes and genders. As noted by historians, while North India was seeing the rise of Rajput states where Brahmanas held traditional secular and ritual authority, the Marathi saints were creating an alternative space for direct, emotional communion with the divine THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.148.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.148

4. Political Landscape: The Deccan and Mughals (intermediate)

To understand the socio-religious movements of the 17th century, we must first visualize the political map of the Deccan (the southern peninsula). For decades, this region was a battleground between the expanding Mughal Empire and the five successor states of the Bahmani Kingdom—collectively known as the Deccan Sultanates: Ahmad Nagar, Bijapur, Golkonda, Berar, and Bidar History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.209. While the Mughals under Akbar and Jahangir sought to assert hegemony, they faced fierce resistance, most notably from Malik Ambar. An Ethiopian-born military genius and Regent of Ahmad Nagar, Ambar pioneered guerrilla warfare and, crucially, integrated Maratha cavalry into his forces. This partnership between Deccani Muslims and Marathas was a defining feature of the era's regional identity History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.207.

The 17th century was the tipping point for this struggle. Under Emperor Jahangir (1605–1627), the Mughals maintained a steady pressure on the South, though Malik Ambar’s tactics often kept them at bay. It was during this specific period of Jahangir's reign that the famous Bhakti saint Sant Tukaram was active in Maharashtra, demonstrating how spiritual movements often flourished amidst political transition. Later, Shah Jahan achieved a major breakthrough in 1636 by subduing the Nizam Shahi rulers and annexing Ahmad Nagar History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.209. This shifted the focus of Maratha leaders like Shahji Bhonsle (Shivaji's father), who eventually moved into the service of the Bijapur Sultanate after his former employer, Ahmad Nagar, fell to the Mughals History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.226.

The final phase of this saga was dominated by Aurangzeb. His Deccan policy was obsessive; he spent the last 25 years of his life (1682–1707) in the south, attempting to crush the Shia kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkonda and the rising Maratha power. While he eventually annexed the Sultanates, the prolonged war drained the Mughal treasury and weakened the empire's hold on the North History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.211. This political churn provided the fertile ground where the Marathas evolved from local administrators and soldiers into a sovereign power, deeply influenced by the egalitarian spirit of the Bhakti movement.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.207, 209, 211; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.226

5. The Rise of Maratha Identity (intermediate)

To understand the Rise of Maratha Identity, we must look at it as a beautiful synthesis of geography, language, and a spiritual revolution. It wasn't just a military uprising; it was the birth of a distinct consciousness. Geographically, the Maratha heartland was nestled in the Western Ghats (Sahyadri Mountains) and the rugged Deccan plateau. This terrain, characterized by deep valleys and high peaks, acted as a natural defensive wall and shaped a resilient, mobile character among the people Geography of India, Physiography, p.52. This physical isolation allowed a unique culture to simmer away from the direct influence of the massive empires in the North.

The true soul of this movement, however, lay in the Bhakti movement of Maharashtra. For centuries, saints like Namdev, Eknath, and Sant Tukaram preached in Marathi, the language of the common person, rather than in Sanskrit. This democratized spirituality. As Justice Ranade famously noted, this religious revival was heterodox in spirit—it was a protest against rigid class distinctions and empty ceremonies History Class XI (TN), The Marathas, p.226. Because many of these saints came from the lower strata of society, they helped forge a sense of social unity and equality that transcended caste lines, creating a unified community long before they became a political power.

This cultural and social foundation was eventually mobilized into a political state by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. He recognized that for the Marathas to survive against larger enemies like the Mughals or the Adil Shahi Sultanate, they needed a physical anchor. This led to the strategic mastery of forts, which were considered the 'core of the state' Exploring Society: India and Beyond, The Rise of the Marathas, p.82. By combining this spiritual egalitarianism (often called Maratha Dharma) with a sophisticated military strategy centered on the Sahyadri hill forts, the Marathas transformed from a group of scattered chieftains into a formidable national power.

Sources: Geography of India, Physiography, p.52; History Class XI (Tamilnadu state board), The Marathas, p.226; Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT, The Rise of the Marathas, p.82

6. Sant Tukaram: Life and Philosophy (exam-level)

Sant Tukaram (1608–1649) stands as one of the most influential figures of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra. Born into a family of traders in Dehu, near Pune, his early life was marked by personal tragedy and famine, which led him to renounce worldly pursuits and dedicate himself to the worship of Lord Vithoba (an avatar of Krishna) at Pandharpur History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.195. Chronologically, he was a 17th-century contemporary of the Maratha king Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and lived during the reigns of Mughal emperors such as Jahangir and Shah Jahan THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.167.

At the heart of Tukaram’s philosophy was the Varkari tradition—a pilgrimage-centric devotional sect that emphasized egalitarianism. He expressed his spiritual experiences through Abhangas, a unique form of Marathi devotional poetry characterized by its simplicity, raw emotion, and social critique. Tukaram’s teachings were revolutionary for their time because they bypassed the need for priestly intermediaries and Sanskrit rituals, arguing instead that true devotion lies in compassion and service to the oppressed. This emphasis on social equality challenged the prevailing caste hierarchies of the 17th century Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.64.

Tukaram’s legacy is not just spiritual but also cultural and political. By composing in the vernacular Marathi language, he democratized religion, making it accessible to the common masses, including women and lower castes. His poetry served as a unifying force in the Deccan, fostering a sense of shared identity and moral courage that arguably provided the psychological and social bedrock for the subsequent rise of the Maratha Empire. His rejection of outward shows of piety in favor of internal purity and "knowing the self" remains a cornerstone of Maharashtrian ethics.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.195; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.167; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.64

7. Chronological Mapping of Mughals and Saints (exam-level)

To master the history of Medieval India, one must learn to overlay the socio-religious map of the Bhakti and Sufi movements onto the political map of the Mughal Empire. While the Mughals were consolidating administrative power, saints across India were spearheading a democratic, devotional revolution. Understanding which saint lived under which emperor is a frequent 'match-the-following' or 'chronology' theme in competitive exams. The Great Mughals (from Babur to Aurangzeb) provide the most stable chronological anchor for this mapping THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.221.

The 17th century was a particularly vibrant period for the Marathi Bhakti movement, specifically the Varkari tradition centered on the deity Vitthal of Pandharpur. Sant Tukaram, one of Maharashtra's most beloved poet-saints, flourished during the early-to-mid 17th century. To identify his Mughal contemporary, we look at the timeline: the reign of Jahangir (1605–1627) and the beginning of Shah Jahan's (1628–1658) rule overlap perfectly with Tukaram's active years THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.221. While the Bhakti movement began as early as the 7th century in South India, its 'second wave' in Northern and Western India (14th–17th centuries) coincided with the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal era History class XI (Tamilnadu), Cultural Syncretism, p.191.

Establishing these links helps us understand the cultural atmosphere of the time. For instance, while Jahangir was known for his patronage of painting and his memoirs, the rural heartlands were resonating with Tukaram’s Abhangas (devotional poetry). This dual perspective—the imperial court and the popular shrine—is essential for a holistic view of Indian history.

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II (NCERT 2025), Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.221; History class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.191

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the regional spread of the Bhakti movement and the rise of the Marathas, this question requires you to perform a "chronological overlay." You have learned that Sant Tukaram was a pivotal figure in the Varkari tradition of Maharashtra, known for his Abhang poetry. To solve such questions, a coach's best advice is to anchor regional spiritual leaders to the central political timeline you've studied, effectively mapping the 17th-century socio-religious milieu onto the Mughal Empire's regnal dates.

The reasoning follows a simple chronological match: Sant Tukaram lived during the early-to-mid 17th century (approx. 1608–1650), as highlighted in Exploring Society: India and Beyond (NCERT 2025). When we examine the Mughal timeline provided in Themes in Indian History Part II (NCERT 2025), we find that Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) is the only emperor among the choices whose reign directly overlaps with the formative and active years of Tukaram's life. Therefore, (C) Jahangir is the correct contemporary match, as he occupied the throne during the height of the Bhakti movement in the Deccan.

Watch out for the traps! The UPSC often uses "era-shifting" to confuse students. Babar (1526–1530) and Akbar (1556–1605) are 16th-century figures who predated Tukaram's birth. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) is a common "near-miss" trap because he was the contemporary of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj; however, Tukaram had passed away just before Aurangzeb’s formal coronation. Always verify the specific century of a saint's activity to avoid being misled by rulers who belong to the same general dynasty but a different historical phase.