Which of the following is/are the characteristics) of the Sannyasi and Fakir uprisings ? 1. These uprisings refer to a series of skirmishes between the English East India Company and a group of sannyasis and fakirs. 2. One reason for the uprising was the ban on free movement of the sannyasis along pilgrimage routes. 3. In the course of the uprisings in 1773, Warren Hastings issued a proclamation banishing all sannyasis from Bengal and Bihar. 4. Are contemporaneous with the Non-Cooperation Movement. Select the correct answer using the code given below :

1. Introduction to Early Civil Uprisings (1757–1857) (basic)

When we study Indian history, we often view the Revolt of 1857 as the first major spark of resistance. However, the century between the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Great Revolt (1857) was far from peaceful. It was characterized by a series of "sporadic popular outbursts" that shook the foundations of British rule long before the sepoys rose up A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.167. These early Civil Uprisings were led by a diverse mix of people—deposed rajas, displaced zamindars, religious leaders, and peasants—all of whom felt the crushing weight of British expansionist policies and economic exploitation.

A prime example of this early resistance was the Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion (1770–1820s) in Bengal and Bihar. This wasn't just a religious movement; it was a desperate response to the Great Famine of 1770 and the harsh land revenue demands of the East India Company. The Company exacerbated the situation by imposing restrictions on the free movement of mendicants (Sannyasis and Fakirs) who traditionally traveled to holy sites. Finding their path blocked and the peasantry they relied on for alms ruined, these ascetics organized into armed bands to raid Company factories and treasuries Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.105.

The British reaction was swift and harsh. In 1773, Governor-General Warren Hastings issued a proclamation banishing Sannyasis from Bengal and Bihar, labeling them as "robbers" and "vagrants" to justify military action against them Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.106. It is crucial to remember that these movements were pre-nationalist. They were driven by local grievances and the protection of traditional rights, distinct from the organized, pan-Indian movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement which occurred much later in 1920 India and the Contemporary World – II, Nationalism in India, p.50.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.167; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.105; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.106; India and the Contemporary World – II, Nationalism in India, p.50

2. Economic Triggers: Famines and Land Revenue Policies (intermediate)

To understand why tribes and peasants across India eventually took up arms, we must first look at the economic backbone of British rule: Land Revenue. Before the British, land revenue was often flexible, adjusting based on the harvest. However, the East India Company transformed land into a rigid source of profit. Between 1766 and 1768 alone, nearly £5.7 million was drained from Bengal, leading to the utter exhaustion of the province's resources Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII, The British Conquest of India, p.72. This systemic extraction meant that when nature failed, there was no safety net.

The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 serves as the most tragic example of this policy-driven disaster. While triggered by a failure of rains, the famine's effects were ravaging because the Company continued to collect revenue aggressively despite the catastrophe. Nearly one-third of Bengal's population perished Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII, The British Conquest of India, p.72. This desperation birthed one of the earliest organized resistance movements: the Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion. Displaced peasants, demobilized soldiers, and religious mendicants (who were now restricted from their traditional pilgrimage routes) joined forces to raid Company factories and treasuries in a bid for survival Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, The Colonial Era in India, p.105.

The British response to these crises was not relief, but more rigid administration. In 1773, Warren Hastings introduced an auction system where the right to collect revenue went to the highest bidder, often urban speculators with no tie to the land Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII, The Structure of the Government..., p.102. This eventually evolved into the Permanent Settlement of 1793 under Lord Cornwallis. This policy turned former tax collectors (Zamindars) into hereditary landlords, fundamentally stripping the actual tillers of their customary rights and making them tenants at the mercy of the Zamindars History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board), Effects of British Rule, p.266.

System Feature	Pre-Colonial Logic	Colonial (Post-1793) Logic
Revenue Amount	Flexible; varied with crop yield.	Fixed and rigid; regardless of harvest.
Land Ownership	Community/Tiller rights respected.	Zamindars became absolute legal owners.
Failure to Pay	Arrears often carried forward.	Land was auctioned off immediately.

Sources: Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (Old NCERT), The British Conquest of India, p.72; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII (NCERT 2025), The Colonial Era in India, p.105; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024), Effects of British Rule, p.266; Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (Old NCERT), The Structure of the Government and the Economic Policies of the British Empire in India, 1757—1857, p.102

3. The Role of Religious Groups in Social Resistance (intermediate)

In the early years of British rule, religious identity often served as a powerful mobilizing force for social and political resistance. While these movements were frequently triggered by economic distress, religious leaders provided the moral authority and organizational network needed to challenge the East India Company. One of the most significant early examples is the Sannyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1770–1820s) in Bengal and Bihar. Following the devastating famine of 1770, groups of Hindu sannyasis and Muslim fakirs (ascetics) rose in arms against the Company's administration Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4, p.105.

The resistance was not merely a 'religious' war, but a reaction to material grievances. The Company’s harsh land revenue policies impoverished the peasantry, who were the primary supporters of these mendicants. Furthermore, the British viewed these wandering ascetics with deep suspicion, eventually imposing restrictions on their free movement along traditional pilgrimage routes. This was seen as an affront to religious freedom and a threat to their livelihood, as they depended on alms and contributions from the local population. In response, Governor-General Warren Hastings issued a proclamation in 1773 banishing these groups from Bengal and Bihar, labeling them as 'robbers' and 'vagrants' to delegitimize their cause Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4, p.106.

It is important to understand the dual nature of these revolts. While the 'outer coloring' was religious, the core was often rooted in economic and political survival. Rebels used religious appeals to unify diverse groups, but their primary targets were the Company's factories and treasuries. Historians often note that these early movements lacked a 'modern nationalist' character, yet they demonstrated a remarkable composite culture where Hindu and Muslim ascetics fought side-by-side against a common colonial oppressor Modern India (Old NCERT), Nationalist Movement 1905—1918, p.252.

Sources: Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.105; Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.106; Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.), Nationalist Movement 1905—1918, p.252

4. Parallel Movements: Tribal and Religious Revolts (intermediate)

Early resistance to British rule in India often manifested as parallel movements where religious identity and tribal rights became the rallying cries against colonial exploitation. Unlike later nationalist movements, these were rooted in the defense of traditional ways of life. A standout example is the Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion (1770–1820s) in Bengal. This movement saw an extraordinary alliance between Hindu sannyasis and Muslim fakirs who united against the East India Company. The rebellion was triggered by the devastating Bengal Famine of 1770 and the Company’s decision to restrict the free movement of these mendicants along their traditional pilgrimage routes Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, p. 105. Governor-General Warren Hastings eventually issued a proclamation in 1773 banishing them and labeling them as 'robbers' and 'vagrants' to justify military action against them Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, p. 106.

While the Sannyasi-Fakir rebellion was taking place, other religious-political movements like the Faraizi Movement emerged in Eastern Bengal. Founded by Haji Shariatullah, it initially focused on religious purification but soon evolved under his son, Dadu Mian, into a potent socio-political force. They organized the peasantry to expel the "English intruders" and challenged the authority of local zamindars who were supported by the British A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, p. 152. These movements demonstrate how religion provided a framework for economic and political protest when traditional livelihoods were threatened A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, p. 228.

Running parallel to these religious uprisings were tribal revolts, which shared similar grievances regarding land and outsiders. The Chuar Uprisings in Midnapore involved tribal groups who held land under feudal tenure but were driven to rebellion when the British administrative changes threatened their hunting and farming lifestyle A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, p. 156. Similarly, the Kol Uprising (1831–1832) was ignited when the Raja of Chotanagpur began leasing tribal villages to non-tribal thikadars (tax collectors), leading to widespread arson and plunder as a form of protest against these "outsiders" History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), p. 291.

Movement	Nature	Primary Grievance
Sannyasi-Fakir	Religious-Ascetic	Restrictions on pilgrimage and harsh land revenue.
Faraizi	Religious-Political	Expulsion of British; protection of tenants against landlords.
Kol Uprising	Tribal	Transfer of ancestral lands to non-tribal outsiders (Dikus).

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.105; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.106; A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.152; A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.156; A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.228; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.291

5. Literary Connections: Anandamath and Vande Mataram (basic)

When we study the Sannyasi and Fakir Uprisings (1770–1820s), we aren't just looking at a series of skirmishes; we are looking at the foundational sparks of Indian nationalism. These revolts, triggered by the British East India Company’s restrictive policies on religious travel and harsh land revenue systems, found a second life in literature nearly a century later. The most famous example of this is the historical novel Anandamath, written by the Bengali intellectual Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1882 Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 4, p. 106.

Anandamath is set during the Great Bengal Famine of 1770 and the subsequent rebellion. Through this work, Bankim Chandra reimagined the ascetic rebels—the sannyasis—as selfless patriots fighting to liberate "Mother India" from foreign rule. This was a critical shift in the Indian psyche: it moved the idea of the nation from a mere geographical entity to a sacred, mother-like figure that demanded devotion and sacrifice. This "didactic nationalism" provided an emotional satisfaction that intellectual movements sometimes lacked Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p. 217.

The most enduring legacy of the novel is the song 'Vande Mātaram' (I bow to thee, Mother). Within the story, it is sung by the rebels as they march into battle. Beyond the pages of the book, the song became the anthem of the Indian freedom struggle in the early 20th century, particularly during the Swadeshi Movement. Its impact was so profound that it was eventually adopted as India’s National Song after Independence Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 4, p. 106. It effectively bridged the gap between the localized peasant/religious resistance of the 18th century and the organized, pan-Indian nationalism of the 20th century History, Class XII (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Rise of Nationalism in India, p. 1.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.106; Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.217; History, Class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Nationalism in India, p.1

6. The Administration of Warren Hastings (1772–1785) (intermediate)

The administration of Warren Hastings (1772–1785) marked a critical transition where the British East India Company shifted from being a mere merchant body to a governing sovereign. However, this period was also characterized by intense rural distress. Having acquired the Diwani rights in 1765, the Company’s primary objective was to maximize land revenue to fund its wars and trade. This aggressive extraction, coupled with the devastating Great Famine of 1770, pushed the peasantry and traditional mendicant groups to the brink of survival Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The Economic Impact of British Rule, p.184.

One of the earliest and most significant challenges to Hastings’ authority was the Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion. This movement involved groups of Hindu and Muslim ascetics who traditionally wandered through Bengal and Bihar, living on charity and pilgrimage. The rebellion was triggered by two main factors: the harsh new land revenue policies that impoverished the villagers who supported them, and the restrictions imposed by the Company on their free movement along traditional pilgrimage routes. Hastings viewed these groups not as religious figures, but as "robbers" and "vagrants" who disrupted the Company's revenue collection. In 1773, he issued a proclamation banishing them from Bengal and Bihar and used superior military force to eventually suppress the movement Exploring Society: India and Beyond, The Colonial Era in India, p.105-106.

Beyond internal rebellions, Hastings also had to navigate complex external threats to safeguard the Company's territories. He adopted the "Ring Fence" policy, which aimed to create buffer states to protect the Company’s frontiers from invaders like the Marathas and Afghans History (Tamilnadu State Board), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.280. His tenure saw the Company drawn into the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), where Hastings used a mix of military might and shrewd diplomacy—such as bribing the Nizam of Hyderabad with the Guntur district—to break anti-British alliances Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The British Conquest of India, p.74.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.280; Modern India ,Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.)[Old NCERT], The British Conquest of India, p.74; Modern India ,Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.)[Old NCERT], Economic Impact of the British Rule, p.184; Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Colonial Era in India, p.105; Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Colonial Era in India, p.106

7. Chronology of Indian Movements: 18th Century vs 20th Century (exam-level)

To master the history of Indian resistance, we must distinguish between the early localized uprisings of the 18th and 19th centuries and the organized national movements of the 20th century. The early phase was characterized by spontaneous, often religiously-toned reactions to the immediate economic disruption caused by the East India Company. A classic example is the Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion (1770–1820s) in Bengal. These were not just 'monks' in the modern sense; they were groups of Hindu and Muslim ascetics who traditionally moved across the region. When the Company imposed harsh land revenue policies and restricted their traditional pilgrimage routes, it sparked a violent conflict that lasted decades Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4, p. 105.

The nature of resistance changed significantly after the Revolt of 1857, which acted as a bridge between the old and the new. While early revolts like the Sannyasi rebellion were suppressed with relative ease because they lacked a pan-Indian political structure, the 20th-century movements were different. These were characterized by mass mobilization and clear political goals, such as Swaraj (Self-rule). For instance, whereas the Sannyasi uprising had largely faded by the early 1800s, the Non-Cooperation Movement did not emerge until 1921, representing a completely different era of political consciousness Themes in Indian History Part III, Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement, p. 314.

Understanding this chronology is vital for the exam because it helps you identify anachronisms—errors where events from different centuries are mixed up. For example, associating the Sannyasi rebellion with 20th-century Gandhian tactics would be a chronological impossibility.

Feature	18th Century Uprisings (e.g., Sannyasi)	20th Century Movements (e.g., NCM)
Nature	Localized, spontaneous, traditional.	Pan-Indian, organized, ideological.
Key Issues	Revenue, pilgrimage rights, local autonomy.	Constitutional rights, complete independence.
Leadership	Religious leaders, displaced zamindars.	Political parties (INC), Mahatma Gandhi.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.105-106; Themes in Indian History Part III, Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement, p.314

8. The Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion: Specifics and Triggers (exam-level)

The Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion (roughly 1770–1820s) stands as one of the earliest and most fascinating chapters of resistance against the British East India Company in Bengal and Bihar. This was not a typical peasant revolt; it was led by ascetics—Hindu Sannyasis of the Dasnami sect and Muslim Fakirs of the Madari sect. These groups traditionally traveled across Northern India, visiting shrines and collecting 'contributions' from local Zamindars and peasants as a form of religious tax. However, the British perceived these armed groups of mendicants as a threat to their newly established 'order' and tax monopoly Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 4, p.105.

The rebellion was triggered by a combination of economic misery and religious interference. The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 had devastated the countryside, yet the British continued to demand high land revenue. When the Company restricted the movement of these monks and fakirs along traditional pilgrimage routes—labeling them 'vagrants' and 'robbers'—the situation turned violent. In 1773, Governor-General Warren Hastings issued a proclamation banishing these groups from Bengal and Bihar, which only served to intensify their guerilla-style attacks on British factories and treasuries Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 4, p.106.

The movement is historically significant for its inter-faith cooperation and the participation of women. Leaders like Majnu Shah (a Fakir) and Bhawani Pathak (a Sannyasi) fought side-by-side. Notably, Debi Chaudhurani emerged as a key woman leader, highlighting that resistance was a community-wide effort against alien rule A Brief History of Modern India, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.140. The rebellion achieved legendary status through Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s famous novel, Anandamath, which is the source of our national song, 'Vande Mataram'.

Sources: Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII (NCERT 2025), Chapter 4: The Colonial Era in India, p.105-106; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.140

9. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Great job on completing the concept modules! This question on the Sannyasi and Fakir uprisings perfectly illustrates how UPSC tests your ability to synthesize economic grievances with religious identity. You’ve learned that early British rule wasn't just a political change but an economic shock; Statement 2 highlights this by connecting the restriction on pilgrimage to the loss of traditional livelihood for these mendicants. As you recall from your study of early peasant and ascetic resistance, these skirmishes (Statement 1) represented the first organized 'fire' the English East India Company had to extinguish in the Bengal and Bihar hinterlands.

To arrive at the correct answer, (C) 1, 2 and 3, you must apply a chronological filter. Statement 3 provides a specific factual anchor: Warren Hastings issued a proclamation in 1773, which aligns with the peak of these uprisings following the devastating Bengal Famine of 1770. The coaching tip here is to look for the "Anachronism Trap" in Statement 4. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) belongs to the Gandhian era of the 20th century, nearly 150 years after these uprisings. By spotting this massive time gap, you can eliminate options (D) and any mental distraction that the two events are related.

UPSC often uses these broad chronological gaps to test your conceptual clarity. Options (A) and (B) are common pitfalls because they are under-inclusive, missing the crucial link between the religious ban and the British administrative response. As detailed in Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), the rebellion was a complex mix of displaced soldiers, starving peasants, and religious mendicants, making Statements 1, 2, and 3 integral parts of the same historical narrative.