Which one of the following is believed to be a compilation of the psalms sung by the women ?

1. The Architecture of Buddhist Canon: The Tripitaka (basic)

Concept: The Architecture of Buddhist Canon: The Tripitaka

2. The Five Nikayas: Exploring the Sutta Pitaka (intermediate)

The Sutta Pitaka is the cornerstone of Buddhist literature, serving as the 'Basket of Discourses' that preserves the Buddha’s teachings and dialogues. While the Vinaya Pitaka focuses on monastic rules and the Abhidhamma Pitaka explores philosophy, the Sutta Pitaka is essentially the narrative heart of the faith THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86. It is organized into five distinct collections called Nikayas, each categorized by the length or nature of the discourses they contain History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42.

These five Nikayas provide a window into the socio-religious world of ancient India. For instance, the Majjhima Nikaya (the collection of middle-length sayings) contains famous dialogues like the one between King Avantiputta and the disciple Kachchana, which critically examines the varna system and the Brahmanical claim to superiority THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Kinship, Caste and Class, p.70. Below is a breakdown of the structural organization of these texts:

Nikaya Name	Content / Focus
Digha Nikaya	Long discourses; often deals with historical and doctrinal themes.
Majjhima Nikaya	Middle-length discourses; covers a wide range of social and ethical issues.
Samyutta Nikaya	Connected or grouped discourses based on specific topics (samyuttas).
Anguttara Nikaya	Numerical discourses (organized by the number of items discussed).
Khuddaka Nikaya	The 'Minor' or 'Short' collection; includes diverse poetic and narrative works.

Within the Khuddaka Nikaya, we find one of the most remarkable pieces of classical literature: the Therigatha (Verses of the Senior Nuns). This is a collection of seventy-three poems attributed to bhikkhunis (nuns) who were contemporaries of the Buddha. These verses, known as udana (inspired utterances), are unique because they represent the earliest extant literature specifically documenting women’s spiritual journeys, their liberation from social constraints, and their attainment of enlightenment THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.93.

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86, 93; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Kinship, Caste and Class, p.70

3. Women in Early Buddhism: The Bhikkhuni Sangha (basic)

In the early days of Buddhism, the Sangha (monastic order) was initially reserved for men. However, according to tradition, the Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, persuaded him to allow women to join, becoming the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni Themes in Indian History Part I, Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.92. This was a radical step in ancient India, as it provided women with a dedicated space for spiritual pursuit outside the domestic sphere. Within the Sangha, the rigid hierarchies of the outside world—such as caste or social status—were discarded. Whether a woman was a former queen or a dasi (slave) like Punna, they were all regarded as equal seekers of truth Themes in Indian History Part I, Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.92.

For many women, joining the Sangha was not just about religious devotion; it was an escape from the drudgery of household life and the constraints of a patriarchal society. They were drawn to the Buddha's emphasis on metta (loving-kindness) and karuna (compassion) Themes in Indian History Part I, Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.94. Those who attained enlightenment and high spiritual standing were known as Theris (respected elders). Their journey from worldly struggle to spiritual liberation is immortalized in a remarkable collection of poems called the Therigatha.

The Therigatha (Verses of the Senior Nuns) is a unique literary gem found within the Sutta Pitaka (the basket of Buddha’s discourses) History, Class XI (TN State Board), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42. It consists of 73 poems attributed to early bhikkhunis. Unlike many ancient texts written about women by men, the Therigatha provides a rare, first-person perspective on women's experiences. These verses, or psalms, capture their moments of 'inspired utterance' (udana) upon reaching enlightenment, reflecting on their past lives and their newfound freedom.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part I, Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.92, 94; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42

4. Buddhist Commentarial Tradition: The Atthakatha (intermediate)

To truly master ancient Indian literature, one must look beyond the primary scriptures and understand the Commentarial Tradition. In Buddhism, this is known as the Atthakatha (literally, 'talk on the meaning'). While the Tipitaka (the Three Baskets) contains the core teachings, rules, and philosophy, the Atthakatha were composed to explain, clarify, and provide historical context to these often cryptic oral traditions. THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86 notes that as Buddhism spread, these commentaries became essential for maintaining doctrinal consistency.

The most pivotal figure in this tradition was Buddhaghosa, a 5th-century CE scholar. He traveled to Sri Lanka to translate the then-existing Old Sinhala commentaries back into Pali, which was the 'lingua franca' of Theravada Buddhism. His works, such as the Sumangalavilasini (a commentary on the Digha Nikaya), are not just religious manuals; they are historical goldmines. They provide us with insights into the social hierarchy, the intense rivalry between heterodox sects like the Ajivikas, and the daily lives of the people. For instance, Buddhaghosa’s writings often used polemics and ridicule to distinguish Buddhist thought from that of rivals like Makkhali Gosala. History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.38.

Understanding the Atthakatha is vital because they represent the transition of Buddhism from a charismatic movement into a scholastic religion. These texts bridged the gap between the Buddha's ancient words and the needs of later monastic communities. They often included regional histories and biographies of the Buddha, enriching the literary landscape of South and Southeast Asia. While the primary Sutta Pitaka gives us the 'what' of the teachings, the Atthakatha provides the 'why' and the 'how' through detailed narratives and philosophical deep-dives.

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.38

5. Classical Sanskrit Literature: The Kavya Tradition (intermediate)

The Kavya tradition represents the peak of classical Sanskrit literature, flourishing most brilliantly during the Gupta period (c. 300–550 CE). Unlike the earlier Vedic literature which was primarily ritualistic or the Puranic texts which were didactic, Kavya was a highly sophisticated, self-conscious form of courtly literature. It was designed not just to instruct, but to evoke specific aesthetic emotions known as Rasa. This tradition was characterized by Alamkara (ornamentation), where poets used complex metaphors, alliteration, and double meanings to showcase their mastery of the language. The Gupta emperors were great patrons of this art; for instance, Samudragupta was so accomplished in the arts that he earned the title Kaviraja (King of Poets) History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.99.

At the heart of this tradition was Kalidasa, widely regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist in Sanskrit history. His works, such as the dramas Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, and Vikramaurvashiyam, blended human emotion with nature in a way that remains unparalleled History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.99. However, the Kavya tradition was diverse. While Kalidasa focused on lyrical beauty and romance, other writers explored different themes: Vishakhadatta wrote the Mudrarakshasa, a rare political thriller about the rise of the Mauryas, and Shudraka composed Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart), which is celebrated for its social realism, depicting the lives of ordinary citizens rather than just kings and gods History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.89, 99.

The tradition also extended into scientific and technical literature, often written in verse to aid memorization. This era saw the compilation of the Amarakosha (a famous lexicon) by Amarasimha and the development of Smritis like those of Narada and Katyayana, which codified social and legal norms History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.89, 101. This holistic literary culture—spanning from the romantic plays of the court to the rigorous calculations of astronomers like Aryabhatta—defines the "Classical Age" of India.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.89; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.99; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Guptas, p.101

6. Dharmashastra and Social Codes for Women (intermediate)

In ancient India, the social and moral fabric was increasingly defined by the Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras—Sanskrit texts compiled roughly between 500 BCE and 500 CE. These were not just religious manuals but normative codes that laid out the Dharma (right conduct) for various social groups, especially focusing on maintaining the purity of the Brahmanical social order. For women, these texts prescribed a life centered around domesticity and subordination to male kin, famously suggesting that a woman is protected by her father in childhood, her husband in youth, and her son in old age.

One of the most critical areas regulated by these codes was marriage. The Dharmashastras recognized eight forms of marriage, reflecting a complex social reality where different communities followed different customs. However, the Brahmanical authors were selective in their endorsement. As noted in Themes in Indian History Part I, Kinship, Caste and Class, p.58, the first four forms were considered "good" or "approved" (such as those involving the gift of a daughter by the father), while the remaining four—which often involved elopement, abduction, or purchase—were condemned. This condemnation suggests that these latter forms were likely practiced by groups who did not strictly adhere to Brahmanical norms.

While the Dharmashastras aimed for total social control, their authority was frequently challenged by heterodox traditions and Bhakti movements. For instance, the Lingayats of Karnataka (Virashaivas) openly questioned Brahmanical social hierarchies and the gendered restrictions found in the Shastras. They encouraged practices that the Dharmashastras explicitly disapproved of, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows Themes in Indian History Part II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.147. This tension between the rigid legalism of the Dharmashastras and the more egalitarian leanings of local movements provides a nuanced view of women's agency in classical India.

Feature	Brahmanical Norm (Dharmashastras)	Heterodox/Bhakti Response (e.g., Lingayats)
Marriage Age	Preferred pre-puberty marriage for girls.	Encouraged post-puberty marriage.
Widow Status	Strict restrictions; remarriage generally condemned.	Actively supported widow remarriage.
Ritual Agency	Women generally excluded from Vedic sacrifices.	Women participated through Vachanas (hymns).

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part I, Kinship, Caste and Class, p.58; Themes in Indian History Part II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.147

7. The Therigatha: Voices of the Senior Nuns (exam-level)

The Therigatha, translated as the 'Verses of the Senior Nuns' or 'Psalms of the Sisters', is a truly extraordinary text in the history of world literature. It is a collection of 73 poems attributed to the bhikkhunis (nuns) who were contemporaries of the Buddha. Within the Buddhist canon, it is part of the Khuddaka Nikaya, which itself is a division of the Sutta Pitaka (the basket of the Buddha's teachings) THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p. 86. Unlike many ancient texts written about women, the Therigatha is written by women, providing a rare and intimate glimpse into their spiritual journeys and the social realities of ancient India History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 3: Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p. 43. These verses are essentially udana—inspired utterances or hymns of joy—composed by women who had achieved enlightenment (Arhatship). The poems frequently reflect on the transition from a life of domestic drudgery to a life of spiritual freedom. For instance, the nun Mutta famously celebrated her liberation from 'three crooked things': the mortar, the pestle, and her 'crooked' husband. This highlights that for many women, joining the Sangha (monastic order) was not just a religious quest but a radical escape from social and patriarchal constraints THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p. 93. To understand where the Therigatha fits in the broader landscape of Buddhist literature, it is helpful to look at it alongside other primary texts:

Text Type	Name	Primary Content
Monastic Discipline	Vinaya Pitaka	Rules and regulations for the Sangha.
Discourses	Sutta Pitaka	The Buddha's teachings, including the Therigatha.
Monks' Verses	Theragatha	Hymns of the Elder Monks (Bhikkhus).
Nuns' Verses	Therigatha	Hymns of the Elder Nuns (Bhikkhunis).

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86, 93; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 3: Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.43

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the structure of the Tripitaka and the socio-religious role of the Buddhist Sangha, this question tests your ability to identify the specific voices within those texts. The building blocks you learned regarding the Sutta Pitaka come together here; while much of the canon records the Buddha's discourses, the Therigatha stands out as a unique anthology of 'inspired utterances.' As a coach, I want you to look at the terminology: Theri (senior nuns) and Gatha (verses or psalms). By recognizing this linguistic link, you can confidently identify (B) Therigatha as the earliest extant collection of women’s spiritual poetry in India, as noted in THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.).

When approaching the other options, notice how UPSC uses 'women-centric' terms to create traps. Stridharmapaddhati might sound plausible because it mentions Stri (woman), but it is actually an 18th-century treatise on Brahmanical domestic duties—the very social constraints these Buddhist nuns were seeking to escape. Similarly, Sumangalavilasini is a scholarly commentary on the Digha Nikaya, not a compilation of songs, and Ritusamhara is a secular work of classical Sanskrit poetry by Kalidasa. By categorizing texts not just by their subject, but by their genre (commentary vs. psalm) and tradition (Buddhist vs. Brahmanical vs. Secular), you can easily eliminate these distractors and find the correct answer.