Who among the following was associated with the formulation of the basic ideas of the Mahayana Buddhism?

1. Core Tenets of Early Buddhism (basic)

To understand Buddhism, we must start with the personal journey of Siddhartha Gautama. After years of witnessing human suffering and trying extreme methods to find an answer—including nearly starving himself through severe penance—he realized that neither a life of luxury nor a life of extreme self-denial led to the truth. This realization led to the Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipada), a balanced approach to life that avoids these two extremes THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.91. Upon attaining enlightenment at Bodhgaya, he delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, an event known as Dharmachakraparivartana or the 'turning of the wheel of law' History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.41. At the heart of his teaching are the Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas), which act as a physician's diagnosis of the human condition. Buddhism teaches that Dukkha (suffering) is intrinsic to our transient world—it includes birth, old age, and even the sorrow of being separated from what we love. The cause of this suffering is identified as Tanha (thirst or craving) for worldly pleasures and power. However, there is hope: suffering can be stopped by eliminating these cravings (Nirvana), and the specific method to achieve this is by following the Noble Eightfold Path History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.43. What makes early Buddhism unique as a philosophy is its practicality and logic. In its earliest forms, the existence of God was considered irrelevant to the goal of ending suffering; the focus was entirely on human action and psychological discipline. Unlike the contemporary Upanishadic focus on the 'Atman' (eternal soul), early Buddhism emphasized that the world is in a constant state of flux THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.91. By mastering one's own mind through the Eightfold Path—which includes right view, right conduct, and right meditation—any individual could rise above worldly troubles.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.41, 43; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.91

2. The Evolution of Buddhist Councils (intermediate)

In the centuries following the Buddha's death, the Buddhist community faced a dual challenge: how to preserve the original teachings without the living master, and how to resolve growing internal disagreements over monastic discipline. This led to the convening of Buddhist Councils (Sangitis), which served as grand assemblies to codify the Dhamma (teachings) and the Vinaya (rules for monks). Initially, these teachings were preserved through a sophisticated system of collective chanting and oral transmission, as nothing was written down during the Buddha's lifetime THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86.

The evolution of these councils reflects the geographical and philosophical expansion of Buddhism. The First Council at Rajagriha, held shortly after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana, focused on establishing the core canon (the Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas). By the Second Council at Vaishali, a century later, the first major rift appeared over laxity in monastic rules. The Third Council, held under the patronage of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, was a turning point. It didn't just finalize the Tipitaka (the Three Baskets) by adding the Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical analysis); it also transformed Buddhism into a global missionary religion by dispatching monks to distant lands History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Emergence of State and Empire, p.53.

By the time of the Fourth Council under the Kushana King Kanishka, the tradition had moved significantly from its roots in the Ganges valley. This council is particularly notable for the transition from Pali to Sanskrit as the primary language of scholarly debate and the emergence of the Mahayana (Great Vehicle) tradition as a distinct and powerful school of thought, setting the stage for the highly systematic philosophical work of later masters like Nagarjuna.

Council	Patron	Major Outcome
1st (Rajagriha)	Ajatashatru	Codification of Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas.
2nd (Vaishali)	Kalasoka	First major schism in the Sangha.
3rd (Pataliputra)	Ashoka	Completion of Tipitaka; launch of foreign missions.
4th (Kashmir)	Kanishka	Use of Sanskrit; division into Mahayana and Hinayana.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Emergence of State and Empire, p.53; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period, p.80; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.86

3. Sects of Buddhism: Hinayana vs. Mahayana (intermediate)

Hello there! As we move deeper into our study of Buddhism, we encounter a pivotal turning point: the great split into the Hinayana and Mahayana sects. This wasn't just a minor disagreement; it was a fundamental shift in how followers viewed the Buddha, the path to salvation, and the very language of the dharma. While the seeds of division were sown early among the Mahasanghikas and Sthaviravadins, the formal crystallization occurred around the 1st century CE, particularly during the reign of Kanishka and the Fourth Buddhist Council History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42.

Hinayana (the "Lesser Vehicle") is the older, more orthodox tradition. Its followers preferred to call themselves Theravadins—those who follow the path of the elders (theras) THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.103. In Hinayana, the Buddha is viewed as a human teacher and an extraordinary guide, but not a god. The goal is individual Nirvana through self-discipline and meditation. They strictly used Pali, the language of the common people, to preserve the original teachings. Geographically, this "Southern Buddhism" flourished in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42.

In contrast, Mahayana (the "Great Vehicle") introduced a more devotional and philosophical complexity. The most influential figure here was Nagarjuna (ca. 150–250 CE), who established the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school. He formulated the doctrine of Sunyata (emptiness), suggesting that all phenomena are empty of independent existence. Mahayana transformed the Buddha into a deity to be worshipped and introduced the concept of the Bodhisattva—a compassionate being who, despite being ready for Nirvana, delays it to help all sentient beings achieve liberation History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42. This sect adopted Sanskrit as its primary medium and spread north into China, Japan, and Korea History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.43.

Let's look at the core differences side-by-side to make your revision easier:

Feature	Hinayana (Theravada)	Mahayana
View of Buddha	Human teacher/Guide.	God-like figure/Deity.
Language	Pali (Spoken language).	Sanskrit (Scholarly language).
Ideal Goal	Arhat (Individual liberation).	Bodhisattva (Universal salvation).
Practice	Meditation and self-help.	Idol worship and devotion (Bhakti).

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42-43; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.103

4. Buddhist Art and Patronage: The Kushana Era (intermediate)

The Kushana Empire, particularly under the reign of Emperor Kanishka (1st–2nd Century CE), served as a bridge between the ancient monastic traditions and the flourishing of Mahayana Buddhism. This era was defined by a symbiotic relationship between political patronage, revolutionary philosophy, and a new visual language for the divine. Kanishka famously convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, a monumental event that formalized the division between the Hinayana and Mahayana sects and shifted the language of Buddhist scholarship from Pali and Prakrit to Sanskrit History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.43. While the emperors provided the resources, the intellectual soul of this period was Nagarjuna. Often cited as the most significant Buddhist philosopher after the Buddha himself, Nagarjuna formulated the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school. His seminal work, the Mulamadhyamakakarika, established the doctrine of Sunyata (Emptiness), which posits that all things are empty of an independent, permanent essence because they exist only in relation to other causes (dependent origination). This philosophical depth provided the necessary framework for Mahayana to expand across Central Asia to China and Japan History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42. This era also witnessed a dramatic shift in Buddhist art, moving from symbolic representations (like a footprint or a tree) to the anthropomorphic (human-form) depiction of the Buddha. Two distinct schools emerged:

Feature	Gandhara School	Mathura School
Influence	Strong Greco-Roman/Hellenistic influence; often called "Graeco-Buddhist" art Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VII, The Age of Reorganisation, p.137.	Indigenous Indian traditions; evolved from earlier Yaksha and local folk styles.
Appearance	Buddha has wavy hair, muscular features, and heavy, pleated Roman-style robes. Looks like the Greek god Apollo.	Buddha is often depicted with a shaven head (or small curls), fleshy features, and thin, transparent drapery.
Expression	Portrays the Buddha in a deeply spiritual, meditative state with half-closed eyes History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period, p.82.	Often shows a smiling, energetic Buddha, radiating a sense of power and benevolence.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42-43; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period, p.82; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science-Class VII, NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Age of Reorganisation, p.137

5. The Global Spread: Missionaries and Scholars (exam-level)

Buddhism’s journey from a regional movement in eastern India to a global faith was not accidental; it was driven by a powerful synergy between intellectual rigor and institutional outreach. While missionaries carried the faith across physical borders, scholars provided the deep philosophical foundation that made Buddhism attractive to diverse cultures across Asia.

The philosophical "engine" behind this expansion, particularly for the Mahayana tradition, was Nagarjuna (ca. 150–250 CE). He is often considered the most important philosopher after the Buddha himself. Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school and formulated the doctrine of Sunyata (emptiness). By systematically defending these ideas in his work, the Mulamadhyamakakarika, he provided the intellectual framework that allowed Mahayana Buddhism to flourish and travel. While patrons like King Kanishka provided the political support and standardized the use of Sanskrit through the Fourth Buddhist Council, it was Nagarjuna who gave the movement its logical and metaphysical depth.

The spread followed two primary axes: the Silk Routes to the North and Maritime Routes to the South. Trade and cultural exchange always went hand-in-hand; Buddhism emerged from India and spread through intersecting points on these ancient trade networks India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.54. In the 7th century CE, the famous Chinese scholar Xuanzang spent 17 years in India, collecting manuscripts and meeting scholars. Upon his return, he translated these Sanskrit texts into Chinese, bridging the two civilizations Exploring Society: India and Beyond, India, That Is Bharat, p.83. The respect for India was so profound that ancient Chinese referred to it as Tianzhu, meaning 'heavenly master.'

To the South, Buddhism reached Tamizhagam as early as the 3rd century BCE, evidenced by Ashokan inscriptions in the Deccan History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.43. By the 7th and 8th centuries CE, even Pallava kings like Narasimhavarman II were facilitating international Buddhist ties, such as building a temple in Nagapattinam at the request of a Chinese ruler for visiting monks like Wu-hing.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.54; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, India, That Is Bharat, p.83; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.43

6. The Philosophy of Emptiness: Nagarjuna & Madhyamaka (exam-level)

In the rich landscape of ancient Indian thought, where 64 different schools of philosophy once vied for influence in kutagarashalas (debating halls), one figure stands out as arguably the most profound philosopher after the Buddha: Nagarjuna (ca. 150–250 CE). Themes in Indian History Part I, Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.85. Nagarjuna is the father of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, which provided the intellectual bedrock for Mahayana Buddhism. His philosophy is a radical expansion of the Buddha’s original teaching on Dependent Origination (Pratityasamutpada)—the idea that everything arises in dependence upon causes and conditions.

At the heart of Nagarjuna's work is the concept of Sunyata, or Emptiness. To the uninitiated, "emptiness" might sound like nihilism (the belief that nothing exists), but for Nagarjuna, it is the exact opposite. He argued that things are "empty" not of existence, but of Svabhava (independent, permanent essence). Think of a flower: it has no "flower-ness" that exists on its own. It is a collection of sunlight, soil, water, and the seed. Because it depends on these factors, it lacks a separate, unchanging identity. This mirrors the Upanishadic insight that everything in the world is connected and interdependent. Exploring Society: India and Beyond, India's Cultural Roots, p.110.

Nagarjuna’s Middle Way is a razor-sharp logical path between two extremes: Eternalism (the belief that things have a permanent soul or essence) and Nihilism (the belief that nothing matters or exists). By proving that all things are empty of independent nature, he showed that change and spiritual transformation are possible. His seminal text, the Mulamadhyamakakarika, systematically dismantled the rigid categories of his time, providing the philosophical framework that allowed Mahayana Buddhism to flourish across Asia, eventually reaching as far as China and Japan.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part I, Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.85; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, India's Cultural Roots, p.110

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

You have just explored the evolution of Buddhist thought from the early Theravada traditions to the complex philosophical structures of the Mahayana school. This question tests your ability to distinguish between the political patronage that allowed the religion to spread and the intellectual authorship of its core doctrines. While the Fourth Buddhist Council was a turning point, the actual formulation of the school's philosophical backbone—specifically the doctrine of Sunyata (emptiness) and the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school—is the legacy of (A) Nagarjuna. As noted in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), he is considered the most influential philosopher after the Buddha for providing the systematic framework that allowed Mahayana to flourish.

To arrive at the correct answer, you must identify the "architect" of the ideas rather than the promoter. A common UPSC trap is to select (D) Kanishka; however, Kanishka was the imperial patron who provided the platform for the council, not the theologian who drafted the philosophy. Similarly, (C) Menander (the Indo-Greek King Milinda) is famous for his philosophical dialogues with Nagasena, but these occurred earlier and focused on foundational Buddhist logic rather than Mahayana's specific tenets. Finally, (B) Kashyapa Matanga represents the missionary phase of the religion; he was instrumental in introducing Buddhism to China but did not formulate its primary Indian doctrines. Always distinguish between the ruler, the missionary, and the philosopher when tackling school-of-thought questions.