Which one among the following was a newspaper founded and edited by Raja Rammohan Roy?

1. Evolution of the Early Press in India (basic)

The story of the Indian press begins long before the first newspaper was even printed. While the English East India Company began importing printing presses in the late 17th century, the technology actually arrived much earlier with Portuguese missionaries in Goa during the mid-16th century NCERT Class X, Chapter 5, p.120. Initially, printing was a tool for religious proselytization, with the first books appearing in Konkani, Tamil (1579), and Malayalam (1713). However, the press as a vehicle for public opinion and political discourse only emerged in the late 18th century.

The true pioneer of Indian journalism was James Augustus Hickey, who in 1780 started The Bengal Gazette (also known as the Calcutta General Advertiser). Hickey’s paper was a radical departure from colonial subservience; he described it as a "commercial paper open to all, but influenced by none" NCERT Class X, Chapter 5, p.120. He didn't just publish advertisements; he published scathing gossip about senior Company officials. This infuriated Governor-General Warren Hastings, who eventually persecuted Hickey and seized his press in 1782. This conflict highlighted a recurring theme in Indian history: the struggle between an independent press seeking to expose corruption and a government desperate to control its image Spectrum, Development of Indian Press, p.557.

In the early 19th century, the press evolved from a tool for European "intellectual entertainment" into a powerful weapon for social reform, led by Raja Rammohan Roy. Known as the 'Father of Indian Journalism', Roy recognized that the press could mobilize public opinion against social evils like Sati. He launched the Bengali weekly Sambad Kaumudi (1821) and the first Persian journal in India, Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822) NCERT Class X, Chapter 5, p.121. For Roy, the press was not just about news; it was a platform for intellectual discourse and a means to challenge the restrictive policies of the British government.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X, Chapter 5: Print Culture and the Modern World, p.109, 120-121; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Development of Indian Press, p.557; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Sources for the History of Modern India, p.8

2. The Indian Renaissance and Socio-Religious Reforms (basic)

The Indian Renaissance was not just a religious movement; it was a fundamental shift in the Indian psyche toward rationalism and humanism. At the heart of this transformation was Raja Rammohan Roy, often hailed as the "Father of Modern India" Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.206. He believed that for society to progress, it had to shed the weight of obscurantism, meaningless rituals, and superstition. To achieve this, he didn't just preach; he created a vibrant public sphere by pioneering the use of the printing press as a tool for social engineering.

By the early 19th century, Roy realized that lasting social change required a continuous dialogue with the educated middle class. In 1821, he launched the Bengali weekly Sambad Kaumudi (Moon of Intelligence), followed by the first Persian-language journal in India, Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News) in 1822 NCERT Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p. 121. These publications served as platforms to argue against social evils like the Purdah system and Sati, while simultaneously advocating for women's rights to property and inheritance Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.208.

Roy’s intellectual horizons were truly global. He was deeply inspired by the French Revolution and the July Revolution of 1830, seeing in them the universal struggle for liberty NCERT Class IX, The French Revolution, p.24. However, his commitment to a free press was tested in 1823 when the colonial government introduced restrictive Press Regulations. In a historic act of intellectual protest, Roy ceased the publication of Mirat-ul-Akhbar, setting a precedent for the Indian press as a vehicle for political dissent and principled journalism.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.206; A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.208; NCERT Class X - History, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121; NCERT Class IX - History, The French Revolution, p.24

3. Press as a Tool for Public Opinion and Reform (intermediate)

In the early years of the British Raj, the press was not a medium for the masses; it was a small window for the European elite. Early publications like James Augustus Hickey’s The Bengal Gazette (1780) primarily provided intellectual entertainment for the British and Anglo-Indian communities Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Sources for the History of Modern India, p.8. However, as the 19th century dawned, visionary Indian leaders recognized that the printed word could be a powerful lever to move the heavy weight of social orthodoxy. This period, often called the Indian Renaissance, saw the press transform into a battleground for ideas, where reformers used logic and rationalism to challenge age-old customs. Raja Rammohan Roy, the 'Father of Indian Journalism,' was the pioneer of this shift. He didn't just report news; he used his journals, Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Persian), to argue against social evils like Sati and to advocate for women's rights and modern education NCERT Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121. By writing in vernacular languages and Persian, he reached the educated elite and the burgeoning middle class, forcing a public debate on issues that were previously considered 'divine' and beyond questioning. As the century progressed, this trend of 'journalism as activism' intensified. Figures like Gopalhari Deshmukh, writing under the pen name Lokahitawadi in the weekly Prabhakar, advocated for a total reorganization of Indian society based on secular and humanistic values. He was so radical in his pursuit of reform that he famously suggested that if a religion does not sanction social reform, the religion itself should be changed Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.215. By the late 19th century, the press had evolved further. It began to bridge the gap between social reform and political consciousness. The growth of vernacular newspapers — reaching over 100,000 in circulation by 1877 — allowed modern ideas of democracy, civil rights, and self-government to seep into the public consciousness Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India, p.241. The press became the 'public square' where the foundations of a modern Indian nation were laid.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India, Sources for the History of Modern India, p.8; NCERT Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, 7 Religious Reform and Public Debates, p.121; A Brief History of Modern India, A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.215; A Brief History of Modern India, Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India, p.241

4. Colonial Press Regulations: Restrictions and Resistance (exam-level)

In the early 19th century, the British administration viewed the growing power of the press with deep suspicion. The first major blow to journalistic freedom came with the Licensing Regulations of 1823, enacted by the acting Governor-General John Adams. These regulations were reactionary, making it a penal offense to start or operate a printing press without a government license. While they appeared general, they were specifically designed to throttle Indian language newspapers and those edited by Indians who were beginning to critique Company rule Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Development of Indian Press, p.557. This era saw the first major act of intellectual resistance: Raja Rammohan Roy, the 'Father of Indian Journalism,' chose to shut down his Persian weekly, Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News), in 1823 as a direct protest against these restrictive laws. Roy's stand demonstrated that the Indian press would not merely be a medium for news, but a tool for political and social reform NCERT (Revised ed 2025), History-Class X, Chapter 5: Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121.

The pendulum swung toward liberty briefly with Charles Metcalfe (Governor-General 1835-36), who is celebrated as the 'Liberator of the Indian Press'. He repealed the hated 1823 ordinance through the Press Act of 1835, requiring only a simple declaration of premises from publishers Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Development of Indian Press, p.558. This liberal phase encouraged a boom in Indian journalism, as nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjea began using newspapers to arouse national consciousness Bipin Chandra, Modern India, Administrative Changes After 1858, p.163. However, this freedom was short-lived; the 1857 Revolt triggered an emergency response, leading to the Licensing Act of 1857, which reimposed strict government control over all printed matter to prevent the spread of 'seditious' ideas Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Development of Indian Press, p.558.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Development of Indian Press, p.557-558; History-Class X (NCERT), Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121; Modern India (Bipin Chandra), Administrative Changes After 1858, p.163

5. Chronology of Major Nationalist Newspapers (intermediate)

The evolution of the Indian press is a mirror to the evolution of the national movement itself. In the early 19th century, journalism was primarily a tool for socio-religious reform. Raja Rammohan Roy, often called the 'Father of Indian Journalism,' pioneered this by launching the Bengali weekly Sambad Kaumudi in 1821 and the Persian weekly Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News) in 1822 NCERT Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121. These weren't just news sheets; they were platforms for intellectual discourse. Roy's commitment was so deep that he ceased publishing Mirat-ul-Akhbar in 1823 as a direct protest against the government's restrictive Press Regulations.

As the 19th century progressed, the press transitioned into a political weapon to expose colonial exploitation. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji used Rast Goftar (Truth Teller) and Voice of India to spread nationalist ideas, while Surendranath Banerjea edited The Bengalee to critique the colonial judiciary Tamil Nadu State Board Class XII, Rise of Nationalism in India, p.11. This era saw the rise of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who utilized Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English) to reach beyond the elite, articulating the grievances of peasants and the lower middle class against the British Raj Spectrum, Development of Indian Press, p.560.

By the 20th century, the press became a vehicle for mass mobilization. A prime example is Mahatma Gandhi, who launched the weekly Harijan in January 1933 while in jail Spectrum, Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences, p.393. Unlike earlier political journals, Harijan focused on social purification, specifically the campaign against untouchability and the promotion of humanism, proving that the nationalist press was as much about internal reform as it was about external independence.

Sources: NCERT Class X, History, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121; Tamil Nadu State Board Class XII, History, Rise of Nationalism in India, p.11; Spectrum - A Brief History of Modern India, Development of Indian Press, p.560; Spectrum - A Brief History of Modern India, Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences, p.393

6. Deep Dive: Raja Rammohan Roy’s Journalistic Legacy (exam-level)

Raja Rammohan Roy, often celebrated as the 'Father of Indian Journalism', was the first to recognize that the printing press could be a powerful engine for social change rather than just a medium for news. He didn't just report events; he initiated public debates. In 1821, he launched the Bengali weekly Sambad Kaumudi (Moon of Intelligence) to advocate for the abolition of Sati, promote monotheism, and criticize the Brahmanical priesthood. This sparked a literary 'war' where the Hindu orthodoxy responded by commissioning their own journal, the Samachar Chandrika, to defend traditional practices NCERT Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121. This era marked the birth of modern public opinion in India, where different sections of society used the press to argue their visions for the country's future. Moving beyond local languages, Roy launched the Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News) in 1822, which was the first Persian-language journal in India. While Bengali reached the masses, Persian allowed him to communicate complex political and philosophical ideas to the educated elite and the administration TN Class XII, Rise of Nationalism in India, p.7. Roy’s journalism was deeply principled; when the British government introduced the restrictive Press Ordinance of 1823 (Licensing Regulations), Roy chose to shut down Mirat-ul-Akhbar in protest rather than submit to government censorship. This act of defiance set a high moral standard for the nationalist press that followed.

Journal	Language	Primary Focus
Sambad Kaumudi	Bengali	Social reform, widow immolation, and religious debates.
Mirat-ul-Akhbar	Persian	Political education, civil rights, and intellectual discourse.

Sources: NCERT Class X, India and the Contemporary World – II, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.121; TN Class XII, History, Rise of Nationalism in India, p.7

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

You have just explored the Socio-Religious Reform movements and the pivotal role of Raja Rammohan Roy, often called the 'Father of the Indian Renaissance'. This question tests your ability to link Roy's ideological stance with his practical tools for reform: the vernacular and foreign language press. As you learned, Roy recognized that to challenge orthodoxies and communicate with the educated elite, he needed a multilingual approach. This led to his pioneering work in journalism, specifically through the Bengali weekly Sambad Kaumudi and the Persian-language Mirat-ul-Akhbar.

To arrive at the correct answer, (B) Mirat-ul-Akhbar, think about the linguistic landscape of 1820s India. While Sambad Kaumudi targeted the local Bengali population, Roy founded Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News) in 1822 to engage the administrative and intellectual classes who still utilized Persian. A key coaching tip for UPSC: always associate Roy's journalistic career with the 1823 Licensing Regulations. His principled decision to shut down this specific newspaper in protest against British censorship is a landmark event in the history of the freedom of the press in India, as detailed in India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X. NCERT.

UPSC frequently uses chronological displacement and famous associations to create traps. For example, Harijan is a classic distractor; while it shares Roy’s focus on social reform, it was started by Mahatma Gandhi in the 1930s—over a century after Roy's era. Similarly, The Calcutta Gazette represents the 18th-century official British press rather than the Indian-led reformist movement. By identifying these chronological mismatches and focusing on Roy's specific 1820s timeline, you can eliminate the noise and identify Mirat-ul-Akhbar as the correct publication.