What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi to organize a satyagraha on behalf of the peasants of Kheda ? 1. The Administration did not suspend the land revenue collection in spite of a drought. 2. The Administration proposed to introduce Permanent Settlement in Gujarat. Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?

1. Introduction to Gandhian Satyagraha (basic)

When Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915, he brought with him more than just legal expertise; he brought a revolutionary method of political struggle called Satyagraha. Having spent two decades in South Africa fighting against racial discrimination, Gandhi had developed this technique as a way to resist injustice without resorting to physical violence India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X, Nationalism in India, p.30. The term is derived from two Sanskrit words: Satya (Truth) and Agraha (Insistence or Holding firmly). Thus, Satyagraha literally means "holding onto the truth" or "truth-force."

A common misconception is that Satyagraha is the same as "passive resistance." Gandhi strongly disagreed with this. He argued that while passive resistance was often considered a weapon of the weak, Satyagraha was "soul-force"—a power that could only be wielded by the strong. It is not passive; it requires intense activity and immense mental courage India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X, Nationalism in India, p.31. A Satyagrahi does not seek to destroy or humiliate the opponent but aims to appeal to their conscience and convert them through self-suffering and logic.

The philosophy of Satyagraha was a unique synthesis of various influences. Gandhi drew from Indian traditions of Ahimsa (non-violence), the Christian principle of "turning the other cheek," and the writings of Leo Tolstoy, who advocated for non-violent resistance to evil Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India, Emergence of Gandhi, p.315. To Gandhi, truth was the ultimate reality, and since no one person possesses the absolute truth, using violence to enforce one's view was both morally and philosophically wrong.

Feature	Passive Resistance	Satyagraha (Soul-Force)
Nature of Force	Often seen as a weapon of those lacking physical power.	Pure soul-force; requires great internal strength.
Attitude toward Opponent	May harbor ill-will or the desire to harass the adversary.	No ill-will; seeks to win over the opponent through love and truth.
Activity Level	Static or passive in its approach.	Intensely active and dynamic engagement.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X, Nationalism in India, p.30-31; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Emergence of Gandhi, p.315; History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board), Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation, p.42

2. Champaran Satyagraha: The First Experiment (basic)

Concept: Champaran Satyagraha: The First Experiment

3. Ahmedabad Mill Strike: The Hunger Strike (intermediate)

In early 1918, Mahatma Gandhi intervened in a labor dispute in Ahmedabad, shifting his focus from rural issues to the plight of the urban working class. The conflict centered on the Plague Bonus. During the plague epidemic of 1917, mill owners had provided a bonus to prevent workers from leaving the city. Once the epidemic subsided, the owners intended to withdraw the bonus, but the workers—already suffering from the doubling of prices for food and cloth due to World War I inflation—demanded a 50% wage hike to compensate for the loss Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM. , Chapter 15: Emergence of Gandhi, p.317.

Gandhi was invited to lead the struggle by Anusuya Sarabhai, a social worker and the sister of Ambalal Sarabhai (the president of the Mill Owners’ Association and a friend of Gandhi). This created a unique situation where Gandhi was fighting for justice against his own friends and supporters. After conducting a detailed study of the mills' profits and the workers' living costs, Gandhi advised the workers to lower their demand to a 35% wage increase and proceed with a peaceful strike History , class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.) , Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation, p.43.

As the strike dragged on, the workers' resolve began to falter due to starvation and the fear of being replaced by outside labor. To bolster their morale and honor their pledge of non-violence, Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike in India. While he maintained that the fast was to support the workers' commitment, it exerted immense moral pressure on the mill owners. Within three days, the owners agreed to submit the dispute to a tribunal, which eventually awarded the workers the full 35% increase they had requested Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM. , Chapter 15: Emergence of Gandhi, p.318.

Feature	Mill Owners' Stance	Workers' Initial Demand	Final Settlement
Wage Adjustment	20% Hike	50% Hike	35% Hike
Core Issue	Withdrawal of Plague Bonus	Compensation for Inflation	Mediated by Tribunal

Sources: Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., Chapter 15: Emergence of Gandhi, p.317-318; History , class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation, p.43

4. Colonial Land Revenue Systems (intermediate)

To understand why peasants eventually turned to Mahatma Gandhi, we must first understand the Colonial Land Revenue Systems that governed their lives. The British East India Company viewed India primarily as a source of revenue, and land was the most significant asset. Over time, they implemented three distinct systems to maximize collections, each with its own set of burdens for the Indian farmer.

The first major system was the Permanent Settlement, introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 across Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. Its primary goal was to bring stability to the Company's income by fixing the revenue amount permanently. In this system, Zamindars (landlords) were recognized as the owners of the land, provided they paid the fixed revenue to the British. If they failed, their lands were auctioned. This created a high-pressure environment where Zamindars exploited peasants to ensure their own survival Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed. 2023-24), Land Reforms, p.190.

Later, the Ryotwari System was introduced in Southern and Western India (including parts of Bombay and Madras). Here, the settlement was made directly with the Ryot (individual cultivator), and the revenue was revised every 20–30 years. Finally, the Mahalwari System, introduced in 1833 under William Bentinck, treated the Mahal (the village unit) as the basis for assessment, though revenue was often collected from individual cultivators History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Effects of British Rule, p.266.

System	Primary Region	Key Intermediary
Permanent Settlement	Bengal, Bihar, Odisha	Zamindars
Ryotwari	Madras, Bombay, Assam	None (Direct with Ryot)
Mahalwari	NWFP, Punjab, Central India	Village Headman/Committee

The Kheda Satyagraha (1918) in Gujarat was a direct reaction to the rigidities of these systems. In Kheda, a severe drought and plague had reduced crop yields to less than one-fourth of the normal produce. According to the Revenue Code, farmers were entitled to a suspension of revenue in such cases. However, the British administration ignored their own rules, insisting on full payment and threatening to seize property. This injustice allowed Gandhi and Sardar Patel to organize a non-violent tax revolt, demanding that the law be followed A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), SPECTRUM, Chapter 15: Emergence of Gandhi, p.318-319.

Sources: Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed. 2023-24), Land Reforms, p.190; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Effects of British Rule, p.266; A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), SPECTRUM, Chapter 15: Emergence of Gandhi, p.318-319

5. Sardar Patel's Rise in Peasant Movements (intermediate)

While Mahatma Gandhi provided the moral and philosophical framework for the Indian National Movement, it was Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel who emerged as the peerless organizational engine, particularly within the peasant movements of Gujarat. Patel’s transition from a successful barrister to a grassroots leader began in earnest with the Kheda Satyagraha (1918). In Kheda, a severe drought and a subsequent plague epidemic had decimated crops, leaving the yield at less than one-fourth of the normal produce. Under the existing Revenue Code, such dire conditions legally entitled the farmers to a remission or suspension of land revenue. However, the British administration ignored these provisions and insisted on full payment, even threatening to seize property.

During the Kheda struggle, which is often termed the "First Non-Cooperation" movement, a clear division of labor emerged: Mahatma Gandhi served as the spiritual and symbolic head, while Patel took on the grueling task of ground-level mobilization. Patel, along with other dedicated Gandhians like Mohanlal Pandya, traveled through the villages to organize the peasantry and bolster their resolve to refuse tax payments Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India, Emergence of Gandhi, p.319. This movement proved that the rural masses could be a potent political force if organized with discipline and a clear legal demand.

The pinnacle of Patel’s rise was the Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928. This movement was triggered by the government's decision to increase land revenue by 22% in the Bardoli taluka of Gujarat. Patel’s leadership here was surgical; he divided the taluka into camps, organized volunteers, and even managed a sophisticated intelligence network to monitor government officials. The struggle was so successful and widely publicized that it was here he earned the title 'Sardar' (leader) from the women of Bardoli India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X, Nationalism in India, p.35. Unlike the Permanent Settlement regions of Bengal, these areas in Gujarat were under the Ryotwari system, meaning the struggle was a direct confrontation between the state and the individual peasant.

Sources: Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., Chapter 15: Emergence of Gandhi, p.319; India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Nationalism in India, p.35

6. Famine Policy and the Revenue Code (exam-level)

To understand the roots of early Gandhian movements like the Kheda Satyagraha, we must first understand the rigid logic of the British Revenue system. Historically, Indian rulers collected revenue primarily when the land was cultivated, effectively sharing the risk of a bad harvest with the farmer. However, the British shifted this paradigm by treating land revenue as a rent rather than a tax. This meant the government expected payment regardless of whether the land produced a bumper crop or nothing at all History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.293. This structural rigidity, combined with a series of devastating famines in the late 19th century—where millions perished—forced the colonial government to eventually codify some rules for relief, though they were rarely implemented with empathy Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.), Economic Impact of the British Rule, p.194.

The Revenue Code was the set of administrative rules governing these collections. A critical provision in this code (specifically relevant to the Bombay Presidency and Gujarat) stated that if the crop yield was less than one-fourth (25%) of the normal produce, the cultivators were entitled to a remission or at least a suspension of the land revenue for that year Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Emergence of Gandhi, p.318. In 1918, Kheda faced a double blow: a severe drought that destroyed crops and a plague epidemic that decimated the workforce. Despite the yield falling below the 25% threshold, the British administration remained adamant, refusing to grant the legal remission and instead threatening to seize the peasants' property and cattle to recover the dues.

Feature	Pre-British System	British Revenue System
Nature of Levy	Tax on actual produce.	Fixed "rent" on the land itself.
Risk Sharing	Ruler shared the risk of crop failure.	Farmer bore all risks of drought/famine.
Relief Mechanism	Informal/Customary remissions.	Strict Revenue Code (often ignored).

This conflict between the letter of the law (the Revenue Code) and the action of the state (forced collection) provided the perfect moral and legal ground for Mahatma Gandhi’s first non-cooperation movement in India. Gandhi argued that by refusing to pay, the peasants were not being "law-breakers" but were actually demanding that the government follow its own Revenue Code. This transformed a local economic grievance into a sophisticated political struggle based on Satyagraha—truth-force.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.293; Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.), Economic Impact of the British Rule, p.194; Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Emergence of Gandhi, p.318

7. The Kheda Satyagraha (1918) (exam-level)

The Kheda Satyagraha of 1918 marks a pivotal moment in the Indian National Movement as it was Mahatma Gandhi’s first non-violent tax revolt in India. Unlike the Champaran Satyagraha, which dealt with the indigo plantation system, Kheda was a struggle against the rigid colonial administrative machinery and its unfair land revenue demands during a time of natural calamity.

The root of the conflict lay in extreme agricultural distress. In 1918, the Kheda district of Gujarat suffered from a severe monsoon failure leading to crop destruction, which was further compounded by a plague epidemic NCERT Class X, Nationalism in India, p.31. Under the government's Revenue Code (or Famine Code), if the crop yield was less than one-fourth (25%) of the normal produce, the cultivators were legally entitled to a total remission of land revenue History Class XII (Tamilnadu State Board), Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation, p.43. However, the British authorities ignored the law, refused to suspend the collection, and began seizing the property and cattle of the impoverished peasants.

Gandhi, alongside Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel—who gave up his legal practice to join the cause—urged the peasants to stand firm and refuse to pay the taxes. This was a test of the peasants' moral strength and unity. Eventually, the government was forced to compromise, issuing secret instructions that revenue should only be collected from those who could actually afford it. This movement is often characterized as the First Non-Cooperation in Gandhi's political career in India Spectrum, Emergence of Gandhi, p.318.

Sources: NCERT Class X, India and the Contemporary World – II, Nationalism in India, p.31; History Class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation, p.43; Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, Emergence of Gandhi, p.318-319

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

To solve this question, you must synthesize your knowledge of the Early Gandhian Satyagrahas with the specific legal and economic context of colonial India. The Kheda Satyagraha (1918), often termed Gandhi's first Non-Cooperation movement, was triggered by a specific breach of the Revenue Code. As you learned in the building blocks, the law stated that if the crop yield was less than one-fourth of the normal produce, the farmers were entitled to a total remission of the land revenue. Despite a severe drought and a plague epidemic, the British administration ignored these rules and insisted on full tax collection, even threatening to confiscate the peasants' property. This direct conflict between legal rights and administrative high-handedness makes Statement 1 absolutely correct, as noted in A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum).

Moving to the second statement, you should apply your understanding of Land Revenue Systems across India. The Permanent Settlement (Zamindari system) was a legacy of Lord Cornwallis introduced in 1793, specifically for Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. By 1918, there was no proposal to introduce this rigid eastern system to the western province of Gujarat. This is a classic geographical and chronological trap set by the UPSC to test if you can distinguish between different regional administrative policies. Since Statement 2 is factually and contextually misplaced, it is incorrect.

By process of elimination and direct verification of the Kheda grievances, we find that only the first statement holds true. This leads us to the Correct Answer: (A) 1 only. Remember, in UPSC History questions, always watch out for the mixing of regional land systems or anachronistic policy proposals designed to distract you from the core socio-economic cause of the protest.