With reference to the revolt of the year 1857, who of the following was betrayed by a friend captured and put to death by the British?

1. Causes and Triggers of the 1857 Revolt (basic)

To truly master the 1857 Revolt, we must look at it as a massive fire that had been building for a century. The revolt wasn't a sudden accident; it was the result of underlying causes (the dry wood) and an immediate trigger (the spark). By 1857, the material for a mass upheaval was ready, and the people's pent-up discontent simply needed a focal point Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The Revolt of 1857, p.139.

The political landscape was dominated by Lord Dalhousie’s aggressive expansionist policies. His primary tool was the Doctrine of Lapse, which dictated that if a ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir, the state would 'lapse' to the British rather than passing to an adopted son Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The British Conquest of India, p.85. This policy stripped many royal families of their status and power. However, the annexation of Awadh in 1856 was particularly provocative; it wasn't annexed due to a lack of an heir, but on the contested grounds of "misgovernment," deeply wounding the pride of the local population and the sepoys who hailed from that region A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.125.

While the kings were losing their thrones, the common people and soldiers (sepoys) felt their religious identity was under attack. There was a widespread fear that the British were trying to convert Indians to Christianity History class XI, Tamilnadu State Board, Early Resistance to British Rule, p.294. This atmosphere of suspicion turned into an explosion with the introduction of the Enfield rifle. The rifle's cartridges were reportedly greased with beef and pig fat. Since soldiers had to bite these cartridges open, both Hindus (who revere the cow) and Muslims (who consider the pig forbidden) felt their faith was being intentionally violated Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The Revolt of 1857, p.139. This religious outrage acted as the final catalyst that united diverse groups against a common enemy.

Sources: Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The Revolt of 1857, p.139; Modern India, Bipin Chandra, The British Conquest of India, p.85; History class XI, Tamilnadu State Board, Early Resistance to British Rule, p.294; A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.125

2. Major Centers and Leadership of the Rebellion (basic)

While the 1857 uprising began as a sepoy mutiny, it rapidly transformed into a popular rebellion as various leaders across North and Central India took charge of their respective regions. These leaders were often displaced rulers, dispossessed zamindars, or local heroes who had personal and political grievances against the British East India Company. Understanding who led where is crucial because it highlights the diverse social base of the revolt.

The primary centers of the rebellion and their respective leaders included:

Center of Revolt	Key Leader	Significance/Note
Delhi	General Bakht Khan	While Emperor Bahadur Shah II was the symbolic head, the real command lay with Bakht Khan, who led the Bareilly troops to Delhi Spectrum, The Revolt of 1857, p.186.
Kanpur	Nana Saheb	The adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II. He was assisted by his brilliant commander, Tantia Tope.
Lucknow	Begum Hazrat Mahal	She organized a regular administration and proclaimed her son, Birjis Qadir, as the Nawab. She famously resisted British offers of surrender and eventually took refuge in Nepal Exploring Society: India and Beyond (NCERT VIII), The Colonial Era in India, p.111.
Jhansi	Rani Lakshmibai	She joined the sepoys after the British refused to recognize her adopted son's right to the throne under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Bihar (Jagdishpur)	Kunwar Singh	A disgruntled zamindar in his 80s who proved to be one of the most formidable military strategists of the revolt Spectrum, The Revolt of 1857, p.177.

It is important to note that the British response was equally localized. For instance, while Sir Henry Lawrence was killed during the siege of the Residency in Lucknow, Sir Hugh Rose led the campaign that eventually recaptured Jhansi and Gwalior Spectrum, The Revolt of 1857, p.174-177. By late 1859, most of these leaders were either killed in battle, executed, or forced into exile as the British poured massive resources into re-establishing their authority.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond (NCERT VIII Revised 2025), The Colonial Era in India, p.111; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), The Revolt of 1857, p.174, 177, 186

3. Nature and Historiography of the 1857 Revolt (intermediate)

To understand the Nature and Historiography of the 1857 Revolt, we must look through two different lenses: how the British saw it (to justify their rule) and how Indians saw it (to build a national identity). The debate isn't just about what happened, but what those events meant for the future of India.

Initially, British historians like Sir John Lawrence and Seeley dismissed the event as a mere "Sepoy Mutiny". They argued it was a selfish, unpatriotic strike by soldiers over religious grievances (the greased cartridges), lacking any popular support or leadership. However, modern research shows that the sepoy was actually a "peasant in uniform". This means the soldier's grievances were deeply connected to the rural distress caused by heavy land revenue and the annexation of states Rajiv Ahir, Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.171. As S. Gopal observed, the movement quickly spread beyond the army because the army voiced the grievances of the common people.

The 20th century brought a radical shift in perspective. V.D. Savarkar, in his 1909 book The Indian War of Independence, 1857, was the first to interpret the revolt as a "planned war of national independence" Rajiv Ahir, Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.180. While Savarkar saw it as a nationalist upsurge, other historians like Dr. S.N. Sen took a more nuanced middle path. Sen argued that while the revolt may have begun as a fight for religion, it certainly ended as a war of independence Rajiv Ahir, Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.180.

To help you navigate these differing viewpoints for your mains answers, here is a summary of the major historiographical schools:

Perspective	Key Proponent	Core Argument
Imperialist	John Lawrence, Seeley	A localized, unpatriotic mutiny of sepoys.
Nationalist	V.D. Savarkar	The First War of Indian Independence.
Revisionist/Objective	S.N. Sen	Started as religious; evolved into a political war.
Critical/Skeptical	R.C. Majumdar	Neither First, nor National, nor a War of Independence.

Sources: Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.171; Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.180

4. Pre-1857 Resistance: Civil and Tribal Uprisings (intermediate)

To understand the Revolt of 1857, we must first look at the 'slow burn' of resistance that preceded it. The British East India Company’s expansion wasn't met with silence; rather, it triggered a series of civil and tribal uprisings caused by the radical disruption of traditional Indian society. These movements were often localized and led by deposed local rulers, sidelined military chiefs, or tribal leaders who saw their ancestral ways of life under threat.

One of the most significant civil uprisings was the Paika Bidroh (1817) in Odisha. The Paiks were a traditional landed militia who enjoyed rent-free land in exchange for military service. When the British conquered Odisha in 1803, they introduced extortionist land revenue policies and abolished the cowrie currency, forcing people to pay taxes in silver. This, combined with a hike in salt prices, led Bakshi Jagabandhu, the former military chief of the Raja of Khurda, to lead a massive rebellion of Paikas and local zamindars that forced the British into a temporary retreat Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.148-149.

Tribal uprisings followed a similar pattern of resisting the 'Dikus' (outsiders). Tribal communities relied on their forests and land, but British land policies favored moneylenders and non-tribal zamindars.

• Kol Uprising (1831–1832): Occurred in Chota Nagpur when the British favored outsiders over original inhabitants like the Mundas and Oraons Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, The Colonial Era in India, p.106.
• Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856): Perhaps the most famous tribal movement, led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu. The Santhals rose against the 'unholy trinity' of zamindars, moneylenders (mahajans), and the colonial government. They even declared the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal as autonomous before the movement was brutally suppressed History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.292.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.148-149, 157; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, The Colonial Era in India, p.106; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.292

5. The Aftermath: Government of India Act 1858 (exam-level)

The Revolt of 1857 was a seismic shock to the British establishment, leading to the realization that the East India Company — essentially a commercial entity — could no longer safely manage a territory as vast and volatile as India. This led to the Government of India Act 1858, also known as the 'Act for the Better Government of India'. This Act marked a formal end to the Company’s era and the beginning of the British Raj, where sovereignty was transferred directly to the British Crown Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, The Revolt of 1857, p.182.

Structurally, the Act dismantled the 'Double Government' system of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors. In their place, a new office was created: the Secretary of State for India. This official was a member of the British Cabinet, ensuring that the governance of India was now directly responsible to the British Parliament. To assist him, a 15-member Council of India was established in London Bipin Chandra, Modern India, Administrative Changes After 1858, p.151. On the ground in India, the Governor-General received a new title, Viceroy, acting as the direct personal representative of the Monarch. Lord Canning, who was the Governor-General during the revolt, became the first Viceroy of India History Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.295.

On November 1, 1858, a grand Royal Durbar was held at Allahabad where Lord Canning read out Queen Victoria’s Proclamation. This document was designed to soothe the nerves of Indians by promising to respect the rights of princely states and ensuring religious neutrality. However, beneath this conciliatory tone, the administrative reality became unitary and rigidly centralized D. D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India, The Historical Background, p.2. While the constitutional changes were implemented in 1858, the military 'cleanup' continued into 1859 as the British hunted down the remaining rebel leaders to ensure no further challenge to the Crown's new authority.

Feature	Pre-1858 (Company Rule)	Post-1858 (Crown Rule)
Governing Body	Court of Directors & Board of Control	Secretary of State + Council of India
Head of India	Governor-General	Viceroy (Crown's Representative)
Accountability	Commercial Shareholders (partially)	British Parliament

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), The Revolt of 1857, p.182; Modern India (Bipin Chandra), Administrative Changes After 1858, p.151; History Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.295; Introduction to the Constitution of India (D.D. Basu), The Historical Background, p.2

6. The Final Stand and Fates of Rebel Leaders (exam-level)

By the end of 1858, the tide of the rebellion had decisively turned in favor of the British. The final stand of the rebel leaders was marked by immense personal bravery, tragic betrayals, and different paths to their eventual ends. While some fell on the battlefield, others were forced into exile or met their end through the treachery of their own associates.

Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi remains perhaps the most iconic figure of this phase. After the fall of Jhansi, she audaciously captured Gwalior with the help of Tantia Tope, forcing the pro-British Scindia to flee. However, her victory was short-lived. She died fighting valiantly on June 18, 1858. Her bravery was so profound that even her adversary, Sir Hugh Rose, described her as the 'best and bravest' of the rebel leaders History class XI (Tamilnadu state board), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.295. Following her death, Gwalior was quickly recaptured by the British, effectively breaking the organized military backbone of the revolt in Central India.

While some leaders like Nana Saheb and Begum Hazrat Mahal chose to escape to the thick jungles of Nepal to avoid capture, others continued a desperate struggle Themes in Indian History Part III, Rebels and the Raj, p.262. Tantia Tope, a master of guerrilla warfare and Nana Saheb’s most loyal general, managed to evade the British for nearly a year after the fall of Gwalior. His end, however, came not in battle but through betrayal. He was handed over to the British by a local chief, Man Singh (the Raja of Narwar), while he was asleep. Following a military trial, he was executed in April 1859, marking the symbolic end of the Great Revolt Exploring Society: India and Beyond (NCERT 2025), The Colonial Era in India, p.111.

Sources: Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Colonial Era in India, p.111; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.295; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART III, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), REBELS AND THE RAJ, p.262; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., The Revolt of 1857, p.175

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

This question brings together your knowledge of the major leadership hubs and the tragic denouement of the 1857 struggle. While you have studied the military strategies of the rebels, UPSC often focuses on the ultimate fate of these leaders to test your grasp of the revolt's final stages. In this case, the keyword "betrayed by a friend" acts as the definitive identifier that links your conceptual understanding of guerrilla warfare to a specific historical outcome.

To arrive at the correct answer, (D) Tantia Tope, recall his role as the legendary commander who continued the fight after the fall of Jhansi and Gwalior. Unlike leaders who fought primarily in pitched battles, Tope specialized in hit-and-run tactics in the jungles of Central India. The narrative of his capture is unique: he was betrayed by his trusted associate, Man Singh (the Raja of Narwar), while sleeping in his camp. According to Modern India by Bipin Chandra (Old NCERT), he was subsequently tried by a military court and hanged at Shivpuri in April 1859, marking the symbolic end of the organized resistance.

Identifying the distractors is equally crucial for UPSC preparation. Nana Sahib did not meet this fate; historical records in Exploring Society: India and Beyond (NCERT 2025) indicate he escaped to the jungles of Nepal after the collapse of the revolt in Kanpur. Kunwar Singh, the veteran leader from Bihar, died from gangrene and battle wounds shortly after his final victory near Jagdishpur. Meanwhile, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly was indeed executed, but the specific hallmark of "betrayal by a friend" is the defining detail UPSC uses to point you toward Tantia Tope. This distinction helps you avoid the trap of confusing different regional leaders who all faced tragic ends.