“The king was freed from his people and they from their king”. On whose death did Badauni comment thus ?

1. The Delhi Sultanate: Chronology and Dynastic Transitions (basic)

The Delhi Sultanate represents a pivotal era in Indian history, lasting for over three centuries from 1206 to 1526. This period began following the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192, which paved the way for Turkic-Afghan rule in northern India Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25. Though often broadly termed a 'Muslim period,' the Sultanate was a mosaic of different ethnicities, including Turks, Persians, Arabs, and Afghans, who shaped the administrative and military landscape of the subcontinent History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136.

The Sultanate is characterized by the rule of five distinct dynasties. It started with the Mamluk (or Slave) Dynasty, established by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. The term 'Mamluk' literally means 'property' and refers to the Arabic designation for a slave, reflecting the origins of early rulers like Aibak and Iltutmish who rose through the ranks of military service History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.139. This was followed by the Khaljis, who were known for rapid expansion into South India, and the Tughlaqs, who oversaw the Sultanate at its greatest territorial extent before it began to fragment.

The latter half of the Sultanate saw the rise of the Sayyid Dynasty, established by Khizr Khan following the invasion of Timur, and finally the Lodi Dynasty. The Lodis were of Afghan origin, and it was during their reign that the capital was shifted from Delhi to Agra in 1504 by Sikandar Lodi History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.148. The era concluded at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the last Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, was defeated by Babur, marking the birth of the Mughal Empire.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII. NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.139; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.148

2. The Rise and Expansion of the Tughlaq Dynasty (basic)

The Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1412) represents a period of grand territorial expansion followed by a dramatic decline. It began with Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, who rose to power by restoring order after the Khalji collapse. He was known for a policy of reconciliation with the nobility, moving away from the harsh control of his predecessors History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 10, p.144. However, the most defining figure of this era was his son, Jauna Khan, who ascended the throne in 1325 as Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a ruler of immense intellect but struggled with execution. His most famous experiment was the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) in the Deccan Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27. He believed a central capital would offer better control over the vast empire. However, forcing the entire population to march over 1,000 km caused massive loss of life and resentment. When the experiment failed and he moved the capital back to Delhi, the empire was left exhausted. Upon his death in 1351, the historian Abdul Qadir Badauni famously remarked that "the king was freed from his people and they from their king," highlighting the turbulent relationship between the Sultan and his subjects.

The later Tughlaq period saw Firuz Shah Tughlaq attempt to stabilize the state, though he faced challenges regarding succession, as Muhammad bin Tughlaq died without a clear heir History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 10, p.146. The dynasty ultimately crumbled following the 1398 invasion by Timur (Tamerlane) during the reign of Nasir-uddin Mahmud Shah. Timur’s brutal ransacking of Delhi and the deportation of Indian artisans to Samarkand effectively ended the Tughlaq era of dominance History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 10, p.147.

Ruler	Defining Characteristic
Ghiyas-ud-din	Reconciliation with nobles and restoration of the Sultanate.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq	Ambitious but mismanaged schemes (Capital shift, Token currency).
Nasir-uddin Mahmud	Last ruler; reign marked by the catastrophic invasion of Timur.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.144, 146-147; Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27

3. Sultanate Administration: Revenue and Military Reforms (intermediate)

To understand the Delhi Sultanate, we must first look at the Sultan not just as a king, but as a military commander-in-chief and the supreme revenue head. The Sultanate was an absolute monarchy where the ruler's primary duty was to defend the territory from Mongol aggression while maintaining internal order Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53. To fund a massive standing army, the Sultans evolved a sophisticated administrative machine. The most critical tool was the Iqta system. Unlike private land ownership, an Iqta was a territorial assignment given to nobles (Iqtadars). They were authorized to collect land revenue from these areas to pay for their administrative expenses and maintain a specified number of troops for the Sultan. The surplus revenue, known as fawazil, was technically supposed to be sent back to the central treasury Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53.

As the Sultanate expanded, especially under the Khiljis and Tughlaqs, the need for centralization grew. Alauddin Khalji introduced radical reforms by bringing land under direct state control (Khalisa) and measuring land to fix land revenue accurately. He was also a pioneer in market reforms. Much like modern government interventions where price ceilings are set to protect consumers Microeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Market Equilibrium, p.84, Alauddin strictly regulated the prices of essential commodities. This ensured that his soldiers could maintain a decent standard of living even with low cash salaries. Later, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq took a more moderate path, reducing the harshness of revenue collection to encourage agricultural growth, while his successor Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq attempted ambitious experiments like token currency and shifting the capital to Deogiri (Daulatabad) to better manage the southern frontiers History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.144.

Military strength was the second pillar of administration. The Sultans moved away from relying solely on tribal levies to creating a professional standing army. To prevent corruption—such as nobles presenting the same horse twice or substituting healthy horses with weak ones—the state introduced Dagh (branding of horses) and Huliya/Chehra (a descriptive roll of every soldier). These reforms ensured that the military remained a loyal and efficient tool of the central government, rather than a collection of independent warlords.

Feature	Early Sultanate (Mamluk)	High Sultanate (Khalji/Tughlaq)
Revenue	Decentralized Iqtas; loosely monitored.	Centralized; land measurement; direct collection.
Military	Dependence on nobles' contingents.	Directly paid standing army; horse branding (Dagh).
Economy	Laissez-faire; tribute-based.	Price controls; market regulations; token currency experiments.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII. NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.144; Microeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Market Equilibrium, p.84

4. Literary Sources and Chroniclers of Medieval India (intermediate)

To understand the political chronology of Medieval India, we must first understand the chroniclers—the writers who documented the rise and fall of dynasties. These sources are generally divided into court historians (who often wrote to please their patrons) and independent observers like travelers. In the early Sultanate period, Al-Biruni provided a foundational look at Indian philosophy and religion in his Tarikh-Al-Hind, while Minhaj-us-Siraj offered a more political account of the early Islamic world and India in his Tabaqat-i-Nasiri History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136. These writers set the stage for how the Delhi Sultanate was perceived by the outside world.

As the Sultanate matured, the nature of chronicling shifted toward detailed political narratives and even biting criticism. Ziauddin Barani is perhaps the most significant figure here; his Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi provides a detailed history of the Sultanate up to the early years of Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign. However, history wasn't always written in prose. The famous poet Amir Khusrau used Persian verse to document the victories of the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs in works like Khazain-ul-Futuh and Tughlaq Nama History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136. Later, during the Mughal era, Abdul Qadir Badauni emerged as a more cynical voice. His famous summary of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s death—“The king was freed from his people and they from their king”—illustrates the intense, often critical relationship between medieval monarchs and their historians.

Finally, we must consider the travelogues, which offer a "social and cultural" perspective often missing from court-centered texts. Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler, wrote the Rihla in Arabic, providing a vivid account of life under Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.118. In the Mughal period, the tradition of record-keeping became even more personal with autobiographies like Babur’s Tuzuk-i-Baburi and intimate family histories like Gulbadan Begum’s Humayun Namah History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.223.

Author	Major Work	Key Focus
Minhaj-us-Siraj	Tabaqat-i-Nasiri	Early Sultanate / World Islamic History
Ziauddin Barani	Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi	History of Delhi Sultanate up to Firuz Tughlaq
Amir Khusrau	Tughlaq Nama	Poetic history of the Tughlaq dynasty
Ibn Battuta	Rihla	14th-century social and cultural life

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.223; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.118

5. Religion, State, and the Ulema-Sultan Conflict (exam-level)

In the medieval political landscape, the relationship between the Sultan and the Ulema (the body of Islamic scholars and theologians) was a delicate dance of power. On one hand, the Sultan was the absolute political and military head, tasked with defending the territories of Islam and collecting taxes Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53. On the other hand, the Ulema were the guardians of the Sharia (Islamic law), and they often expected the Sultan to subordinate state policy to religious dictates. This created a fundamental tension: should the state be guided by political expediency (Zawabit) or strict religious tradition?

While the Sultanate saw five successive dynasties—the Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25—each ruler handled the Ulema differently. Strong monarchs like Balban and Alauddin Khalji worked to centralize authority, often ignoring the Ulema's interference to ensure the state remained stable against internal intrigues and external threats History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141. However, no ruler personified this conflict more than Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Though a deeply learned man, his rationalist approach and unorthodox policies frequently alienated the religious establishment, leading to a reign marked by rebellion and mutual dissatisfaction.

The historical assessment of these conflicts is often found in the writings of medieval chroniclers like Abdul Qadir Badauni. Writing during the later era of Akbar, Badauni was known for his sharp, often critical judgments on past monarchs History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.144. His famous remark upon the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq—that "the king was freed from his people and they from their king"—perfectly encapsulates the exhaustion and disconnect that could occur when a Sultan's vision clashed too violently with the expectations of his subjects and the religious elite.

Entity	Source of Authority	Primary Objective
The Sultan	Sword/Military Might & Administrative Control	Territorial defense, tax collection, and political stability.
The Ulema	Religious Law (Sharia) & Moral Influence	Ensuring the state adheres to religious norms and legal traditions.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25; History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141; History, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.144

6. The Experimental Reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (exam-level)

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351), born as Jauna Khan, is perhaps the most striking figure in the Delhi Sultanate. He was a man of extraordinary intellect, proficient in philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, yet his reign is defined by ambitious "experiments" that were logically sound but administratively disastrous. He ascended the throne in 1325 after the death of his father, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 10, p.144. His reign serves as a classic UPSC lesson in the gap between visionary policy and ground-level execution.

His most famous experiment was the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) in 1327. Strategically, it made sense: he wanted a central location to control the newly conquered Deccan and South India History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 10, p.145. However, instead of moving just the administration, he ordered the entire population of Delhi to march 1,000 km south. The hardships were immense, and when he realized that North India was now vulnerable to Mongol threats, he ordered everyone to march back to Delhi, resulting in massive loss of life Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Class VIII NCERT, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27.

Equally revolutionary was his Token Currency experiment. Understanding that the value of money doesn't have to lie in the metal itself—a concept we now call fiat money Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed.), Money and Banking- Part I, p.54—he introduced copper and brass coins to be used at the same value as silver tankas. However, he failed to maintain a state monopoly on minting. Soon, "every Hindu house became a mint," as people forged the simple copper coins to buy luxury goods. The economy collapsed, and the Sultan had to withdraw the coins, paying people back in real gold and silver from the treasury.

His death in 1351 prompted the historian Abdul Qadir Badauni to famously remark, "The king was freed from his people and they from their king." This summarizes a reign where the ruler’s high-minded theories constantly clashed with the practical realities of the 14th century.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 10: Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.144-145; Exploring Society: India and Beyond , Social Science, Class VIII NCERT, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27; Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed. 2023-24), Money and Banking- Part I, p.54

7. Abdul Qadir Badauni: The Orthodox Historian's Critique (exam-level)

Concept: Abdul Qadir Badauni: The Orthodox Historian's Critique

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

This question tests your understanding of the complex relationship between a ruler’s visionary ambitions and the ground reality of his subjects' lives. You have previously learned about the administrative experiments of the Tughlaq dynasty, particularly those of Muhammad-bin-Tughlak, such as the shifting of the capital to Daulatabad and the introduction of token currency. These projects, while intellectually advanced, caused immense hardship and led to widespread resentment. As noted in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), his reign was characterized by a paradoxical mix of high intelligence and practical failure, creating a state of constant friction between the crown and the public.

To arrive at the correct answer, identify which ruler’s death would realistically cause a sense of mutual relief. Abdul Qadir Badauni, in his work Tarikh-i-Badauni, captured this sentiment perfectly upon the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlak in 1351. The reasoning is clear: the Sultan was exhausted by the constant rebellions of his people, and the people were exhausted by the Sultan’s eccentric and punishing policies. Therefore, (C) Muhammad-bin-Tughlak is the only choice that fits this narrative of "mutual liberation."

UPSC often uses rulers with strong personalities as distractors. Don't fall for the 'stern ruler' trap: while Balban and Ala-ud-din Khalji were rigorous and even cruel, they established a sense of order and fear that didn't result in the specific 'mutual exhaustion' Badauni describes. Feroze Shah Tughlak, on the other hand, was known for his benevolent reforms and public works, making the quote entirely inapplicable to his legacy. Always look for the specific historical irony that defines the ruler’s era.