Whose philosopy is called the Advaita ?

1. Introduction to Astika and Nastika Schools (basic)

In the vast landscape of Indian philosophy, the primary way we classify different schools of thought is not based on whether they believe in a "God" in the Western sense, but rather on their relationship with the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of India. This division creates two broad categories: Astika (Orthodox) and Nastika (Heterodox).

The term Astika refers to those schools that accept the authority of the Vedas as an infallible source of knowledge. Even if a school is technically atheistic (like early Samkhya), it is still called Astika if it respects Vedic testimony. Conversely, Nastika schools are those that reject the authority of the Vedas. These heterodox sects often emerged as a challenge to the established Vedic religion, emphasizing logic, personal experience, or material observation instead of scriptural tradition History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.37.

Feature	Astika (Orthodox)	Nastika (Heterodox)
Vedic Authority	Accepts the Vedas as supreme.	Rejects Vedic authority History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.38.
Key Schools	The Shaddarshana (Six Schools): Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.	Buddhism, Jainism, and Carvaka (Materialism).
Focus	Often seeks to interpret or justify Vedic truths through logic.	Often emphasizes individual reasoning or material evidence over scripture.

It is fascinating to note that these two groups were not isolated. They constantly interacted, debated, and even influenced one another. For example, the concept of renunciation, central to Buddhism and Jainism, eventually left a deep mark on orthodox Hindu traditions like Saivism and Vaishnavism History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.192. Understanding this divide is the first step in mastering the intellectual history of India.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.37; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.38; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.192

2. The Six Schools of Hindu Philosophy (Shad-darshana) (intermediate)

In the rich tapestry of Indian thought, the Shad-darshana (Six Systems of Philosophy) represent the orthodox or Astika schools. Unlike the materialist Lokayata (Carvaka) school which rejected Vedic authority History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.38, these six schools accept the Vedas as the ultimate source of knowledge, though they vary wildly in their methodologies—ranging from pure logic to spiritual mysticism.

The six schools are traditionally paired based on their shared outlooks. Nyaya (founded by Gautama) focuses on logic and epistemology, teaching that salvation comes through right knowledge. It is often paired with Vaisheshika (founded by Kanada), which is famous for its early atomic theory, suggesting that the universe is made of distinct physical entities. Later scholars like Sridhar Bhatta continued this tradition with works such as the Nyaya Kundali History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms, p.112.

Next are Samkhya and Yoga. Samkhya (founded by Kapila) is a dualistic philosophy that separates the universe into Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). Yoga (founded by Patanjali) provides the practical, physical, and meditative techniques to achieve the liberation described in Samkhya. Today, the legacy of Yoga is so profound that it is integrated into national policy through frameworks like the National Commission for Yoga Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania .(ed 2nd 2021-22), Economic Planning in India, p.148.

Finally, we have the two "Mimamsa" schools. Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini) emphasizes the performance of Vedic rituals as the path to merit. In contrast, Uttara Mimamsa, better known as Vedanta (Badarayana), shifts the focus from rituals to the philosophical inquiry into Brahman (the Ultimate Reality). Vedanta eventually gave rise to the most influential sub-schools of Indian philosophy, including Advaita (Non-dualism) by Adi Shankara and Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) by Ramanujacharya History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Development in South India, p.131-132.

School	Founder	Core Concept
Nyaya	Gautama	Logic and Proof (Pramanas)
Vaisheshika	Kanada	Atomism and Particularity
Samkhya	Kapila	Dualism of Spirit and Matter
Yoga	Patanjali	Self-discipline and Meditation
Purva Mimamsa	Jaimini	Ritualism and Vedic Action
Vedanta	Badarayana	Knowledge of Brahman (The Absolute)

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.38; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms, p.112; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Development in South India, p.131-132; Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania .(ed 2nd 2021-22), Economic Planning in India, p.148

3. The Bhakti Movement and its Philosophical Roots (intermediate)

The Bhakti movement represents one of the most significant shifts in Indian history, moving the focus of religious life from complex Vedic rituals and Brahmanical exclusivity toward a personal, emotional bond between the devotee and the Divine. It began in South India around the 6th century CE, led by the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva). These poet-saints traveled across the landscape, singing hymns in Tamil, effectively bringing spirituality to the masses regardless of caste or gender THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.143. This movement was revolutionary because it claimed that devotion (bhakti) was a more direct path to salvation than knowledge or ritual, often elevating local compositions like the Nalayira Divyaprabandham to the status of a 'Tamil Veda' THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.144. While the early Bhakti movement was largely emotional and devotional, it eventually required a robust philosophical framework to engage with the intellectual traditions of the time. This gave rise to the great Vedantic schools of thought. The first major philosopher was Adi Shankaracharya (8th century), who propounded Advaita (Non-dualism). He argued that the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman) are identical, and the perceived world is Maya (illusion). However, this absolute monism was later challenged by Ramanujacharya (11th century), who established Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism) History, Cultural Development in South India, p.132. Ramanuja argued that while the soul is connected to God, it maintains a distinct identity, making a personal relationship of love and devotion philosophically possible.

Philosopher	School of Thought	Core Concept
Adi Shankaracharya	Advaita Vedanta	Absolute Monism; Atman is Brahman; World is Maya.
Ramanujacharya	Vishishtadvaita	Qualified Monism; The soul is a part of God but distinct.

As the movement spread to North India by the 15th century, it acted as a cultural bridge. It integrated different sections of society—from Brahmanas to those considered 'untouchable'—under a single banner of faith, challenging the rigid social hierarchies of the time History, Cultural Development in South India, p.133. This synthesis of South Indian devotional fervor and North Indian intellectual traditions created a pan-Indian cultural identity that defines much of modern Indian spirituality.

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.143; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.144; History (Tamilnadu State Board), Cultural Development in South India, p.132; History (Tamilnadu State Board), Cultural Development in South India, p.133

4. Major Buddhist Scholars: Nagarjuna and Vasumitra (exam-level)

To understand the depth of Indian philosophy, we must look at the intellectual ferment that followed the Buddha's passing. The Buddhist tradition was not a monolith; it was a vibrant ecosystem of 64 different sects or schools of thought that engaged in rigorous public debates in places like the kutagarashala (pointed-roof huts) THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.85. Among the giants who emerged from these debates, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra stand out as the architects of Mahayana and Sarvastivada philosophy respectively.

Nagarjuna (c. 150–250 CE) is arguably the most influential Buddhist philosopher after the Buddha himself. He founded the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school. His central contribution is the doctrine of Sunyata or "Emptiness." Nagarjuna argued that all phenomena are empty of svabhava (inherent existence) because they are dependently originated—nothing exists in isolation; everything exists only in relation to other things. This wasn't nihilism, but a sophisticated "middle path" between eternalism (believing things are permanent) and annihilationism (believing nothing exists). His work, the Mulamadhyamakakarika, remains a cornerstone of Mahayana Buddhism.

Vasumitra (c. 1st-2nd Century CE) represents a different, more systematic branch of Buddhist thought. He was a leading scholar of the Sarvastivada school, which famously held the view that "all exists" (past, present, and future moments are all real). Vasumitra is most famous for his leadership role during the Fourth Buddhist Council held in Kashmir under the patronage of the Kushana King Kanishka History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42. Under his guidance, the council compiled the Mahavibhasha, an encyclopedic compendium of Buddhist metaphysics. His work helped bridge the gap between early sectarian Buddhism and the complex philosophical systems that followed.

Scholar	Primary School	Key Philosophy / Contribution
Nagarjuna	Madhyamaka (Mahayana)	Doctrine of Sunyata (Emptiness); emphasis on the relational nature of reality.
Vasumitra	Sarvastivada	Presided over the 4th Buddhist Council; systematized Buddhist metaphysics in the Vibhasha.

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings, p.85; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects, p.42

5. Comparative Vedanta: Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita (exam-level)

To understand Vedanta, we must first look at its literal meaning: the "end of the Vedas." This school of thought focuses on the relationship between the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). While they all draw from the same Upanishadic texts, three great masters interpreted this relationship in fundamentally different ways, creating a spectrum from absolute oneness to complete distinction.

The first major pillar is Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism), systematized by Adi Shankara in the 8th century. Shankara argued that Brahman is the only truth, and the world we perceive is Maya—an illusion or a relative reality that hides the absolute. For Shankara, the individual soul is not just similar to Brahman; it is Brahman. Through knowledge (Jnana), one realizes this identity and achieves liberation. This doctrine provided a strong philosophical foundation for Hinduism during a time of intense religious debate History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 9, p. 131.

Reacting against this "attribute-less" monism, Ramanujacharya propounded Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism) in the 11th-12th century. He agreed that Brahman is the ultimate reality, but argued that it possesses attributes (Saguna). In his view, the soul and the material world are real and exist as "modes" or parts of God, much like cells are part of a body. This philosophy was crucial because it allowed for a personal relationship with God, fueling the Bhakti movement History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 13, p. 192. Finally, Madhvacharya took the opposite leap with Dvaita (Dualism), asserting that God and the soul are two eternally separate and distinct entities History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 13, p. 195.

Feature	Advaita (Shankara)	Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja)	Dvaita (Madhva)
Core Concept	Non-dualism (Absolute Oneness)	Qualified Non-dualism	Dualism (Strict Separation)
The World	Maya (Illusion)	Real; a part of Brahman	Real; separate from Brahman
Relationship	Soul = Brahman	Soul is a part of Brahman	Soul is dependent on Brahman

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 9: Cultural Development in South India, p.131; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 13: Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.192-195

6. Core Tenets of Shankaracharya’s Advaita Philosophy (exam-level)

At the heart of Indian intellectual history lies the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, masterfully systematized by Shankaracharya (Adi Shankara) in the 8th century. Born in Kaladi, Kerala, Shankara established a doctrine that remains the most influential school of Hindu philosophy. The word 'Advaita' literally translates to 'non-dualism' — the radical idea that there is no distinction between the individual soul and the cosmic reality. Shankara rooted his arguments deeply in the Upanishads and the broader Vedanta tradition, which posits that a single divine essence, known as Brahman, permeates everything in the universe Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), India's Cultural Roots, p.109.

The central pillar of Advaita is the identity of Atman (the individual self) and Brahman (the ultimate reality). To Shankara, Brahman is Nirguna — meaning it is without attributes, form, or qualities. If everything is one, why do we see a world full of diverse objects and people? Shankara explains this through the doctrine of Maya (illusion). Maya is the cosmic force that veils the true nature of reality, making the singular Brahman appear as a world of multiplicity History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 9, p.131. Just as a rope might be mistaken for a snake in the dark, we mistake the material world for the ultimate reality due to Avidya (ignorance).

For a student of history and philosophy, it is vital to understand that Shankara’s path to liberation (Moksha) was through Jnana (knowledge). While other traditions emphasized Saguna Bhakti (devotion to a god with attributes like Vishnu or Shiva), Shankara argued that true freedom comes only when the individual realizes their inherent oneness with Brahman Themes in Indian History Part II, NCERT 2025 ed., Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.143. This intellectual rigor allowed him to engage in debates across India, successfully consolidating a pan-Indian philosophical framework that unified various local cults under the umbrella of Vedic thought.

Concept	Definition in Advaita
Brahman	The only absolute reality; unchanging and without attributes (Nirguna).
Atman	The individual soul, which is fundamentally identical to Brahman.
Maya	The power of illusion that makes the One appear as Many.
Moksha	Liberation achieved through the realization of non-duality (Knowledge).

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), India's Cultural Roots, p.109; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Development in South India, p.131; Themes in Indian History Part II, NCERT 2025 ed., Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.143

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

In our previous sessions, we explored the evolution of the Bhakti Movement and the intellectual shifts in Vedanta philosophy. This question is the perfect application of those building blocks: it asks you to identify the specific architect of absolute monism. When you see the term Advaita (literally "not two"), your mind should immediately link it to the core concept we studied regarding the oneness of Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (ultimate reality). The reasoning here is straightforward: Shankaracharya (Adi Shankara) is the definitive philosopher who systematized this view, using the doctrine of Maya (illusion) to explain the perceived world of diversity, as detailed in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.).

To arrive at the correct answer, (B) Shankaracharya, you must navigate common UPSC "distractor" traps. Option (A) Ramanujacharya is a classic trap because he also belongs to the Vedanta tradition but proposed Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism), which argues that the individual soul remains distinct even in its union with God. Contrast this carefully: Advaita is absolute oneness, while Vishishtadvaita is qualified oneness. Options (C) Nagarjuna and (D) Vasumitra represent a different philosophical lineage entirely—Buddhism. Specifically, Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamaka school and Vasumitra was a key scholar of Sarvastivada. Recognizing these "category errors" helps you eliminate options quickly, as UPSC often mixes Hindu and Buddhist philosophers to test your clarity on theological boundaries.