Detailed Concept Breakdown
7 concepts, approximately 14 minutes to master.
1. Shivaji's Administration and the Ashtapradhan (basic)
Welcome to our journey into the Maratha Empire! To understand the power of the Marathas, we must start with the foundation laid by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. He didn't just build an army; he built a centralized state machinery that was revolutionary for its time. While the Mughals and Deccan Sultans often relied on hereditary land grants (Jagirs), Shivaji moved toward a modern professional bureaucracy. He abolished hereditary posts and insisted on paying his officials in cash from the state treasury, ensuring they remained loyal to the state rather than local land interests Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII NCERT, The Rise of the Marathas, p.72.
At the heart of this administration was the Ashtapradhan—a council of eight ministers. Think of them as a modern cabinet, though they were directly accountable to the King. These ministers handled everything from finance to foreign affairs. For instance, while the Peshwa looked after the general welfare and interests of the state, the Amatya kept the public accounts. This system allowed Shivaji to manage a kingdom that stretched across the Western Ghats and the Konkan, even reaching into parts of Karnataka History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.228.
What truly set Shivaji apart was his welfare-oriented approach. He was a king who cared for the rank and file. For example, he instituted pensions for the widows of soldiers who died in battle and even offered military posts to their sons to ensure the family's survival Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII NCERT, The Rise of the Marathas, p.72. This created a deep bond of loyalty between the people and the crown.
| Minister Title |
Primary Responsibility |
| Peshwa |
Prime Minister; General administration |
| Amatya / Mazumdar |
Finance Minister; Keeping accounts |
| Senapati / Sar-i-Naubat |
Military Commander; Recruitment and organization |
| Sumant / Dabir |
Foreign Affairs and Royal ceremonies |
Key Takeaway Shivaji transitioned the Maratha state from a feudal system to a centralized administration by replacing hereditary land grants with cash salaries and a structured council of ministers (Ashtapradhan).
Sources:
Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII NCERT, The Rise of the Marathas, p.72; History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.228
2. The Period of Crisis: 1689–1707 (intermediate)
The period between 1689 and 1707 represents the most tumultuous phase in Maratha history, often referred to as the
Maratha War of Independence. It began with a staggering blow: the capture and brutal execution of
Sambhaji (Shivaji’s eldest son) by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1689. Aurangzeb believed that by killing the Maratha Chhatrapati and capturing his capital, Raigarh, he could finally annex the Deccan. However, this crisis did not break the Maratha spirit; instead, it transformed a centralized monarchy into a grassroots national resistance
History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p. 229.
With Sambhaji gone and his young son
Shahu in Mughal captivity, leadership passed to Sambhaji’s younger brother,
Rajaram. Because Raigarh was no longer safe, Rajaram was forced to flee deep into the south to the fortress of
Senji (Ginjee) in present-day Tamil Nadu
History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p. 237. For nearly eight years, this distant fort became the unlikely capital of the Maratha Empire. During this time, the Marathas adopted
guerrilla warfare on a massive scale. Since the central treasury was empty, Rajaram began granting
Saranjams (land grants) to local commanders, allowing them to collect taxes and fight the Mughals independently. While this saved the state, it decentralized power, moving it away from the Chhatrapati and toward powerful military generals.
The final phase of this crisis (1700–1707) was led by Rajaram’s widow,
Tarabai. After Rajaram’s death, she acted as regent for her son and proved to be a formidable military strategist. She organized daring raids into Mughal territories like Malwa and Gujarat, exhausting Aurangzeb’s resources. By the time Aurangzeb died in 1707, the Mughal 'Deccan Ulcer' had completely drained his empire’s wealth and prestige
History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p. 213. This era of crisis concluded with the release of Shahu from Mughal custody, which paradoxically ended the war with the Mughals but triggered a internal power struggle between Shahu and Tarabai.
1689 — Execution of Sambhaji; Aurangzeb captures Raigarh and takes Shahu prisoner.
1689–1698 — Rajaram leads resistance from the fortress of Senji (Ginjee).
1700–1707 — Tarabai leads the Maratha counter-offensive after Rajaram's death.
1707 — Death of Aurangzeb; Shahu is released, marking the start of a new political era.
Key Takeaway The 1689–1707 crisis shifted the Maratha struggle from a fight for a kingdom to a decentralized war of national survival, significantly weakening Mughal authority while creating a new class of powerful military commanders.
Sources:
History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.229; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.237; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.213
3. Later Mughals and the Release of Shahu (intermediate)
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire entered a phase of rapid transformation under his eldest son, Bahadur Shah I (also known as Prince Muazzam). Inheriting a state exhausted by decades of war in the Deccan, Bahadur Shah I moved away from his father’s rigid policies. He was famously known as Shah-i-Bekhabar ("The Heedless King") due to his penchant for appeasement and lack of attention to administrative details Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, India on the Eve of British Conquest, p.62. To stabilize the empire, he and his influential general, Zulfiqar Khan, adopted a 'Pacific Policy' aimed at reconciling with the Rajputs, Jats, and most notably, the Marathas.
The most significant outcome of this policy was the release of Shahu (the grandson of Shivaji) from Mughal captivity in 1707. This was not merely an act of mercy; it was a sophisticated diplomatic maneuver. By releasing Shahu, the Mughals hoped to trigger a civil war among the Marathas between the supporters of Shahu and those of Tarabai (the widow of Rajaram), who was ruling in the name of her son. This internal strife would theoretically keep the Marathas occupied and prevent them from raiding Mughal territories Bipin Chandra, Modern India, The Decline of the Mughal Empire, p.3.
1707 — Death of Aurangzeb; Bahadur Shah I releases Shahu from captivity.
1708 — Shahu is crowned at Satara, sparking a conflict with Tarabai's faction at Kolhapur.
1713 — Balaji Vishwanath is appointed as Peshwa, marking the rise of the Chitpavan Brahmins in Maratha politics.
Amidst this Maratha internal conflict, a brilliant diplomat and administrator named Balaji Vishwanath rose to prominence. Initially a petty revenue official, he used his administrative acumen and diplomatic skill to win over powerful Maratha sardars (chiefs) to Shahu’s cause. In 1713, Shahu appointed him as the Peshwa (Chief Minister). Balaji Vishwanath succeeded where others had failed: he streamlined the chaotic Maratha administration and took advantage of the weakening Mughal center to secure the rights of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi over the Deccan Bipin Chandra, Modern India, Indian States and Society in the 18th Century, p.29. This transition shifted the center of Maratha power from the Chhatrapati (King) to the Peshwa, setting the stage for the Maratha Empire's future expansion.
Key Takeaway The release of Shahu by Bahadur Shah I was a strategic move to weaken the Marathas through internal division, which inadvertently paved the way for Balaji Vishwanath to consolidate power and establish the dominance of the Peshwas.
Sources:
A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), India on the Eve of British Conquest, p.62; Modern India (Bipin Chandra), The Decline of the Mughal Empire, p.3; Modern India (Bipin Chandra), Indian States and Society in the 18th Century, p.29
4. Maratha Revenue: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (exam-level)
To understand the Maratha Empire's rapid expansion, we must look at how they funded their massive military machine. At its core, the Maratha revenue system was built on two unique levies: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. These were not internal taxes collected from their own subjects, but rather charges imposed on foreign territories—specifically Mughal provinces and the Sultanates of the Deccan—to ensure their protection and recognize Maratha supremacy.
Chauth (literally meaning 'one-fourth') was a tribute representing 25% of the land revenue of a district. In practice, it was a form of "protection money." By paying Chauth, a territory bought immunity from Maratha raids; in return, the Marathas guaranteed the region protection against third-party invasions History, Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.230. Sardeshmukhi, on the other hand, was an additional 10% levy. Shivaji Raje claimed this based on a legalistic right: he asserted he was the Sardeshmukh (the supreme head of all Deshmukhs or landlords) of the entire Deccan region. Therefore, this tax was a symbol of his hereditary overlordship rather than just a military contract.
| Feature |
Chauth |
Sardeshmukhi |
| Quantum |
1/4th (25%) of revenue |
1/10th (10%) of revenue |
| Justification |
Protection from raids/external war |
Claim of hereditary Overlordship |
| Nature |
Military/Strategic tribute |
Legalistic/Legitimacy claim |
While Shivaji initiated these taxes because internal state revenue was insufficient History, Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.230, it was later administrators like Balaji Viswanath who truly institutionalized the system. Through the Mughal Sanads of 1719, the Marathas gained the formal legal right to collect these taxes from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan. This transformed the Marathas from "raiders" into "partners" in the imperial administration, giving them a steady financial base to expand toward Delhi.
Key Takeaway Chauth was a 25% protection fee to prevent Maratha raids, while Sardeshmukhi was a 10% levy based on Shivaji's claim as the supreme head of the Deccan's landed families.
Sources:
History (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.230
5. Emergence of the Maratha Confederacy (intermediate)
The emergence of the Maratha Confederacy represents a fundamental shift in the Maratha state from the
centralized monarchy established by Shivaji Maharaj to a
decentralized alliance of powerful military families. Following the death of Shivaji and the subsequent execution of Sambhaji, the Maratha kingdom faced a crisis of leadership and a bitter civil war between Shahu (Sambhaji’s son) and Tarabai (Rajaram’s widow). The man who navigated this chaos was
Balaji Viswanath. Appointed as Peshwa in 1713, he moved beyond being a mere minister; he streamlined the administration and secured the
Mughal Sanad, which granted Shahu the right to collect
Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan, effectively legitimizing Shahu's rule
History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p.229.
While Balaji Viswanath laid the administrative foundation, it was his son, Baji Rao I (1720–1740), who formalised the Confederacy structure. He realized that to expand into North India, he needed to empower his commanders. He encouraged prominent military leaders to establish their own spheres of influence, leading to the rise of the Gaekwads (Baroda), Bhonsles (Nagpur), Holkars (Indore), and Scindias (Gwalior). This system allowed for rapid territorial expansion, as these chiefs were given the autonomy to administer their territories while recognizing the Peshwa as their functional head History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p.235.
However, the strength of the Confederacy was also its greatest weakness. The system relied on the personal prestige and authority of the Peshwa to maintain unity. Initially, the chiefs worked "cordially," but after the devastating Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and the untimely death of the young Peshwa Madhavrao I in 1772, the central control of the Peshwas withered. The semi-autonomous chiefs began to prioritize their own interests, leading to internal squabbles that the British East India Company eventually exploited to dissolve the confederacy in 1818 Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.101.
Key Takeaway The Maratha Confederacy was a transition from a single kingdom to a league of powerful chiefs (Scindia, Holkar, etc.) who expanded Maratha power across India but eventually lost unity due to internal rivalries and the decline of the Peshwa's central authority.
Sources:
History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.229; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.235; Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.101
6. The Rise of Balaji Viswanath and the Peshwaship (exam-level)
To understand the rise of the Peshwas, we must first look at the Ashta Pradhan, the council of eight ministers established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. In this system, the Peshwa (a Persian word meaning 'Foremost' or 'First Minister') was originally a nominated official, not a hereditary ruler. However, following the death of Sambhaji and the long period of Mughal-Maratha conflict, the Maratha state faced an internal crisis of authority. While leaders like Rajaram attempted to hold the state together by delegating power to various commanders, the central administration had become fragmented. History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Chapter 15, p. 231
The turning point came with Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720). Originally a revenue official, Balaji possessed a remarkable administrative genius that allowed him to navigate the civil war between Shahu (Shivaji’s grandson) and Tarabai. By backing Shahu’s claim to the throne in 1708 and systematically winning over powerful Maratha chiefs (Sardars), Balaji restored order to a chaotic landscape. In 1713, Shahu appointed him Peshwa, marking the beginning of a new era where the Peshwa became the supreme executive head of the Maratha Empire. History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Chapter 15, p. 235
Under Balaji Viswanath, the office of the Peshwa underwent a fundamental transformation. He streamlined the administration and shifted the center of power from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwa’s office. Most significantly, he made the post hereditary, ensuring that his son, Baji Rao I, would succeed him. This shift allowed the Peshwas to virtually control the entire administration and even act as the religious heads of the state, effectively usurping the powers that once belonged solely to the King. History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Chapter 15, p. 235
1708 — Balaji Viswanath helps Shahu ascend the throne after his release from Mughal custody.
1713 — Shahu appoints Balaji Viswanath as the Peshwa (Prime Minister).
1719 — Balaji negotiates the Treaty of Delhi, gaining the rights to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
1720 — Death of Balaji Viswanath; succeeded by his son, Baji Rao I.
Key Takeaway Balaji Viswanath transformed the Peshwaship from a nominated ministerial post into a supreme, hereditary executive office that restored central authority to the Maratha state.
Sources:
History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.231, 235
7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)
Now that you have mastered the transition from the absolute monarchy of Shivaji to the decentralized era of the Maratha Confederacy, this question tests your ability to identify the turning point in Maratha governance. After the execution of Sambhaji in 1689, the Maratha state faced a crisis of leadership and internal civil war. To find the correct answer, you must look for the individual who moved beyond mere survival and introduced a formalized administrative structure that consolidated power under Shahu.
As a student of history, you should recognize that while Raja Ram kept the resistance alive against Aurangzeb, he lacked the centralized control to streamline the state. The breakthrough occurred when Balaji Viswanath, a Chitpavan Brahmin with exceptional diplomatic and financial skills, backed Shahu’s claim to the throne. Upon becoming Peshwa in 1713, he transformed the office into the de facto seat of power, negotiating the crucial Mughal-Maratha Treaty which gave the administration financial stability through Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. This logic leads us directly to (B) Balaji Viswanath as the correct architect of this administrative revival, a point emphasized in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.).
UPSC often includes chronological decoys to test your timeline precision. Raja Ram is a common trap because he was the immediate successor, but his reign was marked by decentralized guerrilla warfare rather than administrative reform. Ganga Bai belongs to a much later period (the late 18th century), and Nanaji Deshmukh is a 20th-century social reformer—a classic out-of-era distractor designed to catch students who are not strictly filtering options by the medieval time period.