Which of the following pairs is correctly matched ?

1. Centralized Administration of the Delhi Sultanate (basic)

Welcome to your first step in mastering the administrative history of Medieval India! To understand the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), we must first look at its core: the Centralized Administration. Unlike the decentralized feudal systems of earlier periods, the Sultanate established a highly structured, top-down governance model centered in Delhi. This system was designed to manage a vast territory ruled by five successive dynasties: the Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis NCERT Class VIII, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25.

At the heart of this structure was the Sultan. He was the absolute authority—acting as the political, military, and even the judicial head of the state. Contemporary chronicles describe his role as three-fold: defending the territory, collecting taxes, and maintaining personal contact with the public to understand their condition NCERT Class VIII, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53. However, no ruler can govern alone. To manage the complexities of a growing empire, the Sultans created a Council of Ministers, each heading a specialized department or Diwan.

The administrative machinery evolved as different rulers faced unique challenges. For example, while the early Slave dynasty focused on survival, later rulers like Ghiyasuddin Balban and Alauddin Khalji introduced specialized departments to handle military reforms and revenue arrears. This specialization reached its peak under the Tughlaqs, who created departments for everything from agriculture to the welfare of slaves Tamilnadu State Board Class XI, Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136. Understanding these departments is the key to decoding the "administrative terminology" often asked in exams.

Department (Diwan)	Primary Function	Key Official
Diwan-i-Wizarat	Finance and General Administration	Wazir (Prime Minister)
Diwan-i-Arz	Military Organization and Recruitment	Ariz-i-Mumalik
Diwan-i-Insha	State Correspondence and Royal Decrees	Dabir-i-Khas
Diwan-i-Rasalat	Religious Affairs and Foreign Relations	Sadr-us-Sudur

Sources: NCERT Class VIII, Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25, 53; Tamilnadu State Board Class XI, History (2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136

2. The Iqtadari System and Land Revenue Structure (basic)

At its heart, the Iqtadari System was the backbone of the Delhi Sultanate’s administration. Imagine you are a Sultan with a vast empire but very little liquid cash to pay your massive army and high-ranking officials. To solve this, you divide your empire into tracts of land called Iqtas. Instead of a salary, you give an officer (the Iqtadar or Muqti) the right to collect revenue from a specific region. While the Sultanate period (1206–1526) saw many dynasties—from the Slave Dynasty to the Lodis—it was Iltutmish, an Ilbari Turk, who is credited with formalizing this system to consolidate his rule History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136.

The Iqtadar had two primary responsibilities: maintaining a military contingent for the Sultan and maintaining law and order in their assigned territory. From the revenue collected, the Iqtadar would pay for his own expenses and his troops, and then remit the surplus (known as fawazil) to the central treasury. It is crucial to understand that an Iqta was not a grant of land ownership; it was merely a transfer of the right to collect revenue. In the early days, these posts were strictly transferable—a Muqti could be moved from one region to another every few years to prevent them from becoming local warlords.

As the Sultanate evolved, so did the system. Under powerful rulers like Balban, who served as the Na'ib-i mulk (Deputy of the Realm) before becoming Sultan, the state exerted tighter control over these assignments to ensure the military was always ready History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141. However, by the time of the Tughlaqs, the system began to lose its administrative rigor and started becoming hereditary, laying the groundwork for the later Jagirdari system of the Mughals.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141

3. Economic and Market Reforms of Alauddin Khalji (intermediate)

To understand the economic reforms of Alauddin Khalji, we must first look at the why. Unlike modern governments that use Open Market Operations (OMO) to manage liquidity Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed.), Money and Banking- Part I, p.63, Khalji’s primary goal was military survival. He needed to maintain a massive standing army to defend against Mongol invasions, but he couldn't afford to pay high salaries. His solution was a radical form of market intervention: if he couldn't increase the soldiers' pay, he would decrease the cost of their living by fixing the prices of essential commodities.

Alauddin established three distinct markets in Delhi: one for food grains (the Mandi), one for costly cloth, sugar, and oil (the Sarai-i-Adl), and a third for horses, slaves, and cattle. This systematic categorization ensured that the supply chain was transparent and controllable. He appointed a high-ranking official called the Shahna-i-Mandi (Superintendent) to oversee these markets. To prevent hoarding and ensure a steady supply, the state established its own granaries and mandated that all grain be sold at the government-fixed price. This mirrors the modern concept where governments intervene in markets—like fixing Minimum Export Prices (MEP)—to stabilize domestic prices, though such measures can sometimes create long-term distortions Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed.), Agriculture - Part I, p.326.

The enforcement of these rules was ruthless. Khalji utilized a network of Barids (intelligence officers) and Munhiyans (secret spies) to report on market activities and any cheating by merchants. To further bolster the state's finances and ensure officials weren't siphoning off funds, he created the Diwan-i-Mustakhraj, a department specifically dedicated to the recovery of revenue arrears from corrupt collectors. While later rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq focused on agricultural expansion through the Diwan-i-Kohi, Khalji’s focus remained on rigid price control and revenue extraction to sustain his military machine. This tradition of state protection for consumers is a recurring theme in Indian history, echoing even back to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which mandated fair measurements for goods like ghee Exploring Society, NCERT Class VII, Understanding Markets, p.267.

Sources: Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed. 2023-24), Money and Banking- Part I, p.63; Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed. 2023-24), Agriculture - Part I, p.326; Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science-Class VII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Understanding Markets, p.267

4. Agrarian Experiments of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (intermediate)

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a ruler far ahead of his time, often attempting visionary reforms that failed due to poor timing and administrative execution. His agrarian experiments were a response to a severe famine in the Doab region and a need to stabilize state revenue. Unlike his predecessors who focused merely on tax collection, Tughlaq attempted the first large-scale state intervention in agricultural production. He established a dedicated department called the Diwan-i-Amir-i-Kohi, headed by the Amir-i-Kohi, to oversee the expansion of cultivation and improvement of crop yields. This was a medieval precursor to modern institutions like the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation INDIA PEOPLE AND ECONOMY, NCERT 2025 ed., p.36.

Central to his plan was the provision of state-funded agricultural credit known as Sondhar (or Taccavi loans). These loans were provided to farmers to purchase seeds, and bullocks, and to dig wells, much like the modern Kisan Credit Cards (KCCs) or institutional credit aimed at supporting farmers during distress Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania, p.321 & p.620. Tughlaq’s vision was to increase what we today call agricultural intensity—the ratio of total cropped area to net cultivated area—by ensuring that fallow lands were brought under the plough and better crops were rotated Geography of India, Majid Husain, p.14. He even divided the land into developmental blocks managed by government officials to monitor progress.

Despite the brilliance of the plan, the experiment was a colossal failure. The officials appointed to oversee the blocks were often corrupt or lacked local knowledge, and the land chosen for the experiment was frequently infertile. Furthermore, the timing was disastrous as the Doab was reeling under a decade-long famine. Much of the Sondhar loan money was spent by starving peasants on food rather than farming. While the experiment collapsed within three years, it remains a landmark in Indian history for introducing the concept of direct state accountability in rural development.

Sources: INDIA PEOPLE AND ECONOMY, NCERT 2025 ed., Land Resources and Agriculture, p.36; Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania, Agriculture, p.321; Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania, Sustainable Development and Climate Change, p.620; Geography of India, Majid Husain, Spatial Organisation of Agriculture, p.14

5. Military Organization: From Balban to the Khiljis (exam-level)

The evolution of the Delhi Sultanate’s military organization was a direct response to two existential threats: the persistent Mongol invasions and the internal instability caused by a rebellious nobility. To secure the throne, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban pioneered the separation of the military department from the finance department. He established the Diwan-i-Arz (the Ministry of War), headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. This was a revolutionary step because, previously, the military was often a disorganized collection of feudal levies. Balban’s focus was on enhancing the dignity and efficiency of the army to suppress internal revolts, such as the one led by Tughril Khan in Bengal History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141.

While Balban laid the administrative foundation, Alauddin Khalji transformed the Sultanate into a military state. He was the first Sultan to maintain a large standing army paid directly in cash from the royal treasury. To ensure that the state was not cheated by corrupt officials or soldiers, he introduced two rigorous systems: Dagh (branding of horses) and Chehra/Huliya (a detailed descriptive roll of every soldier). These measures prevented the practice of substitute soldiers or the use of inferior horses during inspections. To sustain this massive military expenditure, Alauddin also created the Diwan-i-Mustakhraj, a department specifically designed to extract revenue arrears and ensure the state had enough funds to pay its troops.

The synergy between military and administration during this period is best summarized by the following table:

Feature	Balban's Reforms	Alauddin Khalji's Reforms
Core Innovation	Establishment of Diwan-i-Arz (separate military dept).	Introduction of Dagh and Chehra systems.
Payment Mode	Largely land-based (Iqta) but centralized control.	Strict cash salaries for soldiers.
Focus	Stability and suppression of defiant governors History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141.	Territorial expansion and total defense against Mongols.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.141

6. Welfare State Measures of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (intermediate)

To understand the administration of the Delhi Sultanate, one must distinguish between the 'militaristic' focus of early rulers and the more 'paternalistic' approach of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388). After the tumultuous reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Shah sought to win the support of the nobility, the clergy, and the common people through various welfare measures. His reign is particularly noted for the creation of specialized departments aimed at social security and public utility, marking a shift toward a welfare state model within the Sultanate framework. One of the most unique features of his administration was the Diwan-i-Bandagani (Department of Slaves). Unlike his predecessors who viewed slaves primarily as domestic labor or elite soldiers, Firuz Shah took a personal interest in their welfare and training. He is reputed to have possessed 180,000 slaves, of whom 12,000 were trained as skilled artisans History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.151. These slaves were given salaries and even assignments in the army, creating a loyal cadre for the Sultan, though this eventually became a source of political instability for his successors. Beyond the slave department, Firuz Shah established several other institutions that functioned as early social safety nets:

• Diwan-i-Khairat: A charity department established to provide financial assistance for the marriage of poor Muslim girls and to support the needy and the orphaned.
• Dar-ul-Shifa: A charitable hospital (also known as Shifa Khana) in Delhi, where patients received free medicine and food. He also appointed Unani and Ayurvedic physicians to staff these centers.
• Employment Bureau: He set up an office to help the unemployed find work, matching individuals to jobs based on their qualifications and character.
• Public Works: He was a prolific builder, credited with constructing canals (like the Yamuna-Sutlej canal), mosques, and new cities such as Firozabad and Hissar-Firoza.

These measures were documented extensively in contemporary chronicles such as Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani and later by Shams-i-Siraj Afif History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136. While these reforms provided temporary stability and prosperity, they also decentralized power, as many of these positions became hereditary, eventually weakening the central authority of the Tughlaq dynasty.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.151; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136

7. Summary of Medieval Administrative Terminology (exam-level)

To master the administrative history of the Delhi Sultanate, we must look at how the central government was divided into specialized departments called Diwans. While the Sultan held absolute authority as the political and military head Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, p. 53, the complexity of ruling a diverse territory necessitated a council of ministers and organized bureaucracy. These departments evolved significantly across the five successive dynasties—the Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, p. 25. Each major Sultan left a mark by creating a department to solve a specific problem. For instance, Ghiyasuddin Balban (Mamluk dynasty) strengthened the central army by establishing the Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department) to ensure the Sultanate could defend against Mongol incursions. Later, Alauddin Khalji, known for his rigorous market and land reforms, created the Diwan-i-Mustakhraj to recover arrears from revenue collectors and ensure the treasury was full. Our knowledge of these specific administrative changes comes largely from contemporary chronicles like those of Ziauddin Barani History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), p. 136. The Tughlaq era brought further specialization. Muhammad bin Tughlaq, facing agrarian distress and the need for more revenue, established the Diwan-i-Amir-i-Kohi to bring more land under cultivation through state support. His successor, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, who was famous for his massive number of royal slaves (nearly 180,000), created the Diwan-i-Bandagani specifically to manage their welfare and training.

Department (Diwan)	Purpose	Associated Sultan
Diwan-i-Arz	Military Administration	Balban
Diwan-i-Mustakhraj	Recovery of Arrears	Alauddin Khalji
Diwan-i-Kohi	Agriculture & Land Development	Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Diwan-i-Bandagani	Department of Slaves	Firuz Shah Tughlaq

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have explored the administrative machinery of the Delhi Sultanate, you can see how individual rulers created specialized departments, or Diwans, to address specific governance challenges. This question is a classic test of your ability to link a ruler's policy priorities with their institutional innovations. In the case of Dewan-i-bandagani (Department of Slaves), it reflects the unique social and administrative policy of Firuz Shah Tughlaq, who was famous for maintaining a record number of slaves. Thus, the pairing with Tughlaq is the correct answer, serving as a direct application of the functional associations you've just studied.

To master these types of questions, you must learn to navigate the "Great Swap" trap that UPSC frequently employs. Notice how the examiners have shuffled the founders and their respective departments: Dewan-i-Mustakhraj (for recovering revenue arrears) belongs to the economically-driven Alauddin Khilji, not Balban. Similarly, Dewan-i-Kohi (agriculture) was the brainchild of Muhammad bin Tughlaq during his experimental reforms, while Dewan-i-Arz (military department) was actually consolidated by Balban to strengthen the central army. By systematically cross-referencing these functions—as detailed in Satish Chandra's History of Medieval India—you can avoid the confusion of historical overlap and isolate the single accurate pairing.