The ‘Modi script’ was employed in the documents of the

1. Rise of Regional Successor States (basic)

The 18th century in India was a period of profound transformation, defined by the transition from a centralized Mughal authority to a fragmented landscape of regional powers. While the Mughal Empire had been the envy of the world for two centuries, its stability was severely shaken during the long reign of Aurangzeb. However, the true momentum of disintegration began after his death in 1707 Bipin Chandra, Modern India (NCERT), Chapter 1, p.1. As the central power in Delhi weakened, various provinces began to assert their autonomy, leading to the rise of what we call "Successor States." Historians generally categorize these emerging powers into three distinct groups. Successor States, such as Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, were founded by high-ranking Mughal governors who became de facto independent rulers but continued to acknowledge the nominal sovereignty of the Mughal Emperor. In contrast, The "New" States (or Insurgent States), like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, rose to power through direct rebellion against Mughal authority Rajiv Ahir, Spectrum, Chapter 4, p.64. Lastly, Independent Kingdoms like Mysore and the Rajput states emerged in areas where the Mughal grip had historically been loose. Crucially, these regional powers did not completely discard the past. Most maintained administrative continuity, borrowing heavily from the Mughal systems of land revenue and governance. For instance, the Marathas, while being a "new" state, established a sophisticated administrative machinery. They utilized the Modi script—a cursive administrative script for Marathi—to maintain their official correspondence, land records, and court proceedings Tamilnadu State Board, Chapter 15, p.238. This reliance on established administrative tools allowed these states to function effectively even as the political map of India was being redrawn.

Sources: Modern India (Old NCERT), The Decline of the Mughal Empire, p.1; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), India on the Eve of British Conquest, p.64; History (Tamilnadu State Board), The Marathas, p.238

2. Maratha Administrative Framework (intermediate)

The Maratha administrative framework was a sophisticated blend of indigenous traditions and innovative fiscal policies designed to sustain a rapidly expanding military state. At the heart of the central administration was the Ashta Pradhan (a council of eight ministers). Unlike a modern cabinet where ministers might have collective responsibility, these officials were directly accountable to the Chhatrapati. This system provided a structured executive backbone, much like the modern State Council of Ministers serves as the 'real executive authority' in our current politico-administrative system Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth (7th ed.), State Council of Ministers, p.329. However, while modern ministers are categorized into ranks like Cabinet or Deputy Ministers based on exigencies Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth (7th ed.), State Council of Ministers, p.332, the Ashta Pradhan had predefined roles ranging from the Peshwa (Prime Minister) to the Nyayadhish (Chief Justice).

A unique feature of Maratha administration was its revenue model, which distinguished between Swarajya (territory directly ruled) and Moghlai (neighboring territories). To fund the state's military requirements, Shivaji Maharaj implemented two distinct levies: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. Chauth was a payment of one-fourth (25%) of the revenue of a district, paid by non-Maratha territories in exchange for protection from raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy claimed by the Chhatrapati by virtue of being the hereditary head (Sardeshmukh) of the Maratha people History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.230. These taxes allowed the Marathas to exert influence over vast areas of the Deccan and North India without intervening in the day-to-day internal administration of those provinces Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.74.

For record-keeping and official correspondence, the Maratha bureaucracy utilized a specific cursive writing style known as the Modi script. This script was designed for speed and was the standard for administrative documentation, land records, and diplomatic letters during both the Shivaji and Peshwa eras. Extensive records in the Modi script, including correspondence with foreign powers like the French, are still preserved in historical archives like the Saraswati Mahal Library in Thanjavur. This linguistic standardization ensured that the Maratha state maintained a rigorous and organized civil service capable of managing complex land revenue and military accounts.

Sources: Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth (7th ed.), State Council of Ministers, p.329, 332; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.230; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.74

3. Successor States of the South: Wodeyars, Zamorins, and Hoysalas (intermediate)

The political landscape of Southern India underwent a massive transformation following the decline of the great Vijayanagar Empire after the Battle of Talikota in 1565. This power vacuum allowed several local chieftains and feudatories to assert their sovereignty, leading to the rise of distinct regional powers. To understand the Wodeyars, we must see them as the direct inheritors of the Vijayanagar legacy in the Karnataka region, while the Zamorins represented a different model of power based on maritime commerce on the Malabar coast.

The Wodeyar Dynasty began as small feudatories but seized the opportunity to become independent in 1578 under Raja Wodeyar. A pivotal moment occurred in 1610 when the capital was moved from Mysore to the strategic island fortress of Srirangapatnam History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.279. The dynasty maintained a steady rule until the mid-18th century, when internal weaknesses allowed the military genius Haidar Ali—who started as a soldier and rose to become the Faujdar of Kolar—to take de facto control in 1760. Interestingly, after the fall of Tipu Sultan in 1799, the British restored the Wodeyar line under a minor ruler, Krishnaraja III, through a Subsidiary Alliance, showing the deep-rooted legitimacy this dynasty held in the region Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.100.

On the western coast, the Zamorins (Samuthiris) of Calicut operated a very different kind of state. Their power was not just built on land, but on maritime trade. As the rulers of a major entrepôt, they welcomed global traders, including Vasco da Gama in 1498 Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Advent of the Europeans in India, p.23. To defend their commercial interests against Portuguese aggression, the Zamorins relied on the Kunjali Maraikkars, a line of legendary Muslim naval commanders renowned for their seafaring and guerrilla naval tactics Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), India on the Eve of British Conquest, p.76.

While the Hoysalas (centered at Belur and Halebidu) predated the Vijayanagar era, their administrative and cultural foundations in the Mysore plateau were the bedrock upon which the later Wodeyar state was built. The transition of power in the South can be visualized as a relay race of authority:

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.279; A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.100; A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Advent of the Europeans in India, p.23; A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), India on the Eve of British Conquest, p.76

4. Evolution of Vernacular Languages and Scripts (intermediate)

Concept: Evolution of Vernacular Languages and Scripts

5. Official Record Keeping in Pre-Colonial India (exam-level)

In the pre-colonial era, particularly during the 18th century, the Maratha Empire established one of the most sophisticated bureaucratic systems in India. The heart of this administration was the Peshwa Secretariat at Poona (Pune). This central office was a massive repository of data, managing the accounts of village and district officials, recording the pay and rights of public servants, and drafting detailed budgets for civil, military, and religious expenditures History, TN Board Class XI, The Marathas, p.235. Such meticulous record-keeping was essential for maintaining control over a vast and decentralized empire.

To facilitate this rapid administrative work, the Marathas employed a specific script known as Moḍī. This was a cursive form of Devanagari designed for speed; its flowing nature allowed clerks to write official documents without frequently lifting their pens. While Marathi was the language of the state, Moḍī was its official administrative vehicle, used for everything from land records and tax registers to high-level diplomatic correspondence Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, The Rise of the Marathas, p.79. Significant collections of these records, including day-to-day court proceedings and correspondence with foreign powers like the French, are preserved today in historical libraries such as the Saraswati Mahal History, TN Board Class XI, The Marathas, p.238.

This administrative rigor was not merely for internal use; it was the backbone of the Maratha tax system. By maintaining precise daily registers of revenues and grants, the state could efficiently manage the collection of Chauth (a 25% tax) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% levy) from territories across the Deccan and North India Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, The Rise of the Marathas, p.74. This level of documentation ensured that even as the empire expanded, the central authority at Poona could audit the accounts of remote provinces and maintain financial stability.

Feature	Details of Maratha Record Keeping
Administrative Script	Moḍī (Cursive Devanagari used for speed and official letters).
Central Hub	The Peshwa Secretariat in Poona.
Key Documents	Daily revenue registers, land records, and Chauth/Sardeshmukhi accounts.
Repository	Libraries like Saraswati Mahal (holds French–Maratha correspondence).

Sources: History, Tamil Nadu State Board (2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.235, 238; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.74, 79

6. The Modi Script: The Cursive Hand of the Marathas (exam-level)

To truly understand the administrative heartbeat of the Maratha Empire, we must distinguish between the language they spoke and the script they used to record their history. While Marathi was the language of the people and the court, the Moḍī script served as the specialized, cursive hand for statecraft. Most Indian scripts are descendants of the ancient Brahmi script THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, Kings, Farmers and Towns, p.46. Moḍī, however, is a specific cursive adaptation of Devanagari designed to meet the demands of a rapidly expanding bureaucracy Exploring Society: India and Beyond Class VIII, The Rise of the Marathas, p.79.

The defining feature of Moḍī was its speed. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Maratha clerks (Karkuns) needed a way to write without frequently lifting the pen from the paper. This led to the development of "Moḍī" (meaning 'broken' or 'bent' in Marathi). Because of its efficiency, it became the official administrative script of the Marathas, particularly reaching its zenith during the Peshwa period. It was the standard medium for:

• Land Revenue Records: Documenting the complex agrarian administration and tax collections.
• Diplomatic Correspondence: Communicating with both regional powers and European entities.
• Court Proceedings: Recording the day-to-day legal and political affairs of the Maratha state.

Today, these records form a vital treasure trove for historians. The Saraswati Mahal library in Thanjavur—built by the Nayaks but significantly enriched by the Maratha ruler Serfoji II—remains one of the most important repositories for these documents. It preserves rare records of court proceedings and unique 18th-century French-Maratha Moḍī correspondence, illustrating how the script was used even in international diplomacy History class XI (Tamilnadu state board), The Marathas, p.238.

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, Kings, Farmers and Towns, p.46; Exploring Society: India and Beyond Class VIII, The Rise of the Marathas, p.79; History class XI (Tamilnadu state board), The Marathas, p.238

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have explored the administrative structures of medieval and early modern India, you can see how regional powers developed specific scripts to handle the speed of state business. The transition from formal calligraphy to cursive shorthand is a recurring theme in history. This question tests your ability to link a specific linguistic tool—the Modi script—to the political entity that relied on it for daily record-keeping, land revenue, and diplomacy. It brings together your knowledge of Maratha administration and the evolution of the Marathi language.

To arrive at the correct answer, recall the evolution of bureaucratic efficiency. While Devanagari was used for religious and literary texts, the Marathas required a more fluid script for their expanding empire. The Modi script (derived from the Marathi word 'modane', meaning to break or bend) allowed scribes to write rapidly without lifting the pen frequently. Documents such as official letters and land records preserved in the Saraswati Mahal library confirm that the Marathas used this as their primary administrative script, especially during the Peshwa period. As noted in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), this script remained the official medium for Maratha documentation until the mid-20th century.

UPSC often uses regional overlaps to create confusion, but you can eliminate the other options by focusing on linguistic geography. The Wodeyars (A) and Hoysalas (C) were centered in the Karnataka region, where Kannada and Sanskrit were the dominant administrative languages. Similarly, the Zamorins (B) of Calicut operated in the Malayalam-speaking belt of the Malabar Coast. The common trap is grouping all Deccan or Southern powers together; however, the Modi script is a unique identifier for (D) Marathas and their specific administrative heritage.