The member of Shivaji’s Astha Pradhana who looked after foreign affairs was

1. Rise of the Marathas and Hindavi Swarajya (basic)

The rise of the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was not just a political event, but a revolutionary movement for Hindavi Swarajya — a term signifying self-rule for the people of the land. This movement emerged from the rugged Sahyadri Mountains (Western Ghats), where the difficult terrain (averaging 600–900m in elevation) provided a natural defensive advantage against the sprawling empires of the Mughals and the Deccan Sultanates Geography of India, Physiography, p.52. Shivaji's vision was to replace foreign-dominated administrative structures with a indigenous system that prioritized the welfare of the peasantry and the protection of local culture.

On 6 June 1674, the movement achieved formal sovereignty when Shivaji was crowned at the mountain fortress of Raigad. He assumed the title 'Chhatrapati' (the supreme king) and inaugurated his own calendar era, the Rājyābhiṣheka shaka, signaling that the Marathas were no longer mere rebels but a legitimate, independent state Exploring Society: India and Beyond, The Rise of the Marathas, p.67. This coronation was essential for administrative legitimacy, allowing him to issue official seals and treaties as a sovereign monarch History, The Marathas, p.228.

To ensure the long-term survival of Swarajya, Shivaji looked beyond his heartland in Maharashtra. He launched the Dakshina-digvijaya (Southern Conquest), extending Maratha influence into present-day Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Exploring Society: India and Beyond, The Rise of the Marathas, p.67. This was a masterstroke of strategic depth; by securing strongholds in the South, he ensured that if the Maratha heartland were ever overwhelmed by a Mughal invasion, the resistance could continue from these southern bases. This expansionist yet defensive strategy became the bedrock of Maratha administrative planning.

Sources: Geography of India, Physiography, p.52; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, The Rise of the Marathas, p.67; History, The Marathas, p.228

2. Maratha Revenue Administration: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (intermediate)

To understand the Maratha empire's rise, we must look at how they funded their legendary army. Shivaji's core kingdom, known as the Swarajya, was located in the rugged Western Ghats where agricultural yields were often limited. Since the internal revenue was insufficient to sustain a large standing army and administrative machinery, Shivaji implemented two unique levies on territories outside his direct control: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. These were collected from adjoining Mughal provinces and the Sultanate of Bijapur History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.230.

Chauth (meaning 'one-fourth') was a payment of 25% of the standard revenue of a district. Think of this as "protection money" in a political sense. In exchange for paying Chauth, the Marathas guaranteed that they would not raid the territory and would protect it from external aggression. It was essentially a method to outsource the cost of the Maratha military to neighboring states. Sardeshmukhi, on the other hand, was an additional 10% tax. This was not based on military protection, but on a legalistic claim. Shivaji asserted that he was the Sardeshmukh (the hereditary head Deshmukh or overlord) of the entire Maharashtra region. Therefore, by virtue of his supreme position, he claimed this 10% as his rightful share History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.230.

Together, these taxes allowed the Marathas to maintain a powerful military presence without over-taxing their own subjects in the Swarajya. This system effectively turned the Maratha state into a "warfare state," where expansion fueled the treasury. While the Peshwa (Prime Minister) eventually oversaw the general administration of these collections, specific diplomatic negotiations regarding these tributes often involved the Sumant, the minister responsible for foreign affairs.

Feature	Chauth	Sardeshmukhi
Share	1/4th (25%) of revenue	1/10th (10%) of revenue
Justification	Protection from Maratha raids/invasion.	Shivaji's claim as the hereditary supreme head (Sardeshmukh).
Territory	Non-Maratha lands (Mughal/Deccan Sultanates).	Non-Maratha lands over which legal claim was asserted.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.230-231

3. Military Organization: Forts, Paigah, and Silahdars (intermediate)

To understand the Maratha military, we must first look at the geography of the Deccan. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj famously believed that "Forts are the soul of the kingdom." These forts (Gad) served as the administrative and military nerve centers of the Swarajya. While the infantry was essential for guarding these hill forts, the cavalry was the offensive heart of the Maratha army, optimized for the high-speed Guerilla warfare that became their signature strength History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024), Chapter 15, p.240.

The Maratha cavalry was uniquely organized into two distinct groups based on how they were equipped. This distinction is crucial for understanding the state's financial and administrative control over its soldiers:

Feature	Bargirs (Paigah)	Silahdars
Equipment	Provided by the State (Horse and weapons).	Provided by the Soldier (Owns horse and gear).
Loyalty/Control	Strictly disciplined, direct state employees.	Independent contractors serving for pay.

The Bargirs formed the Paigah (the state-owned stable/standing army), ensuring the central government always had a reliable, professional force. In contrast, Silahdars were essentially self-equipped mercenaries who joined the ranks with their own resources Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, Chapter: The Rise of the Marathas, p.74. Structurally, the military was highly organized; for instance, the smallest unit in the infantry was commanded by a Naik, ensuring a clear chain of command History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024), Chapter 15, p.240.

As the Maratha Empire expanded, particularly under the Peshwas, the military began to evolve. They integrated foreign expertise to modernize. The Artillery was often managed by Portuguese or Indian Christians, and later, the Marathas even recruited the English and Arabs into their ranks History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024), Chapter 15, p.237. By the 18th century, leaders like Mahadji Shinde were even raising large European-style disciplined battalions to compete with colonial powers Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class VIII, Chapter: The Rise of the Marathas, p.74.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.237, 240, 236; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.74

4. Comparative Administration: Mughals vs. Marathas (intermediate)

To understand the transition of power in 18th-century India, we must compare the administrative DNA of the Mughal Empire and the Maratha State. The Mughals, particularly under Akbar, built a highly centralized and systematic administration. At its heart was the Mansabdari system, a unique "single service" that merged civil and military roles. Every officer held a rank (Mansab) divided into Zat (personal status/salary) and Sawar (the number of cavalrymen they were required to maintain) History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.206. This was a top-down hierarchy where the Emperor’s will was absolute, and officials were frequently transferred to prevent local power bases from forming.

In contrast, the Maratha administration evolved through two distinct phases: the Shivaji Era and the Peshwa Era. Shivaji’s early administration was leaner and more localized, governed by the Ashta Pradhan (a council of eight ministers). However, as the Marathas expanded to displace Mughal power in Central India History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225, their military system—especially under the Peshwas—began to model itself after the Mughals. This included similar modes of recruitment, payment structures, and a heavy reliance on the cavalry History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.236.

Feature	Mughal Administration	Maratha Administration (Peshwa Era)
Core System	Mansabdari (Rank-based hierarchy)	Confederacy (Alliance of powerful chiefs)
Structure	Highly Centralized	Decentralized/Centrifugal tendencies
Revenue Focus	Direct land revenue (Zabt/Dahshala)	Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (External levies)

However, a critical weakness emerged in the Maratha system that the Mughals had managed better in their prime: unity of command. While the Mughal Emperor maintained a firm grip through a rigid bureaucracy, the Maratha state shifted toward a confederacy. This led to "centrifugal tendencies" where powerful chiefs (like the Scindias or Holkars) often prioritized their own interests over the central authority of the Peshwa. This lack of a cooperative spirit and the presence of divided commands eventually made them vulnerable to the disciplined forces of the English East India Company Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.108.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.206; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225, 236; Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.108

5. The Evolution of Power: From Chhatrapati to Peshwas (exam-level)

The transition of Maratha power from the **Chhatrapati** (the King) to the **Peshwas** (the Prime Ministers) represents a fundamental shift in Indian political history—from a centralized monarchy to a decentralized confederacy. In the original administrative structure established by Shivaji Maharaj, known as the **Ashta Pradhan** (Council of Eight), the Peshwa was the *Mukh Pradhan* or Chief Minister. While the Peshwa supervised general administration and held the state seal, the specific portfolio of foreign affairs and diplomacy was actually the domain of the **Sumant** (also known as the *Dabir*), who acted as the foreign secretary History class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.231. This balance of power changed drastically during the reign of Shahu. Following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a civil war erupted between Shahu and his aunt **Tarabai**, who ruled on behalf of her son History class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.229. Amidst this instability, a brilliant revenue official named **Balaji Vishwanath** rose to prominence. He excelled in diplomacy rather than just military might, convincing powerful naval chiefs like **Kanhoji Angre** to shift their loyalty to Shahu History class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.231. In gratitude, Shahu appointed him Peshwa in 1713, and from this point forward, the office became **hereditary**, shifting the center of gravity from the Chhatrapati's court at Satara to the Peshwa's seat at **Pune**. Under the Peshwas, the nature of Maratha administration evolved. The practice of granting **Jagirs** (land grants) was revived to satisfy ambitious Maratha sardars (commanders) Modern India (Old NCERT), Indian States and Society in the 18th Century, p.29. This created a "Confederacy" model where powerful families like the Scindias, Holkars, and Gaekwads ruled their own territories while acknowledging the Peshwa as their head. By the mid-18th century, the Peshwa had transitioned from a servant of the crown to the de facto ruler of the Maratha Empire, handling everything from high-stakes treaties like the **Treaty of Salbai** to complex military alliances A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.103.

Sources: History class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.229, 231; Modern India (Old NCERT), Indian States and Society in the 18th Century, p.29; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.103

6. Detailed Roles of the Ashta Pradhan Council (exam-level)

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was not just a legendary warrior but a visionary administrator who institutionalized governance through the Ashta Pradhan, or the Council of Eight Ministers. Established to provide a structured advisory system for day-to-day administration, this council ensured that the Maratha state functioned as a cohesive unit rather than a one-man show. Each minister headed a specific department, but it is crucial to remember that their roles were advisory; the final authority always rested with the Chhatrapati History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p. 229.

The hierarchy was led by the Mukhya Pradhan, popularly known as the Peshwa. He functioned as the Prime Minister, overseeing the general welfare of the kingdom and representing the King in his absence. While the Peshwa held the royal seal and supervised the administration at large, specialized portfolios were distributed among the other seven. For instance, the Amatya (or Mazumdar) acted as the Finance Minister, meticulously checking and countersigning all public accounts to ensure fiscal discipline History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p. 229. Meanwhile, the Sumant (or Dabir) was the architect of Maratha diplomacy, serving as the Foreign Minister responsible for handling treaties and receiving foreign ambassadors History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15, p. 231.

The internal security and record-keeping of the state were managed by the Waqia-Navis (Mantri), who maintained a record of the King’s daily activities and court proceedings. Interestingly, Shivaji’s system blended civil and military duties: with the exception of the Panditrao (Ecclesiastical head) and the Nyayadhish (Chief Justice), all other ministers were expected to lead military expeditions when required. This ensured that the top tier of administration remained deeply connected to the ground realities of the Maratha military state.

Minister Title	Modern Equivalent	Primary Responsibility
Peshwa	Prime Minister	General administration and state welfare.
Amatya	Finance Minister	Auditing accounts and managing the treasury.
Sumant	Foreign Minister	Diplomacy, foreign relations, and treaties.
Waqia-Navis	Home/Interior Minister	Intelligence, records, and royal household.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.229; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 15: The Marathas, p.231

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have completed your study of the Maratha administrative structure, you can see how the Ashta Pradhan system functioned as a specialized cabinet. This question tests your ability to connect the building blocks of Shivaji’s governance—specifically the delegation of power—to the precise nomenclature of the era. The council was not merely an advisory body but a group of eight ministers with distinct portfolios. Recognizing that each title corresponds to a modern-day ministerial role is essential for navigating UPSC history questions on medieval administration.

To arrive at the correct answer, use the process of functional mapping. The Sumant (also known as the Dabir) was the official responsible for foreign affairs and diplomacy. His duties included the reception of foreign ambassadors, maintaining diplomatic etiquette, and advising the King on treaties and relations with external powers like the Mughals or the English. According to History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), the Sumant served as the eyes and ears of the state regarding external threats and alliances, making (D) Sumant the correct identification for the foreign affairs portfolio.

UPSC often includes "distractor" roles to test the depth of your conceptual clarity. The Peshwa was the Prime Minister responsible for general administration and the state's welfare, acting as a deputy to the Chhatrapati, not a specialized foreign minister. The Sachiv (or Shurunavis) handled royal correspondence and ensured the accuracy of state records—essentially a Home Secretary or Chief Secretary. Meanwhile, the Pandit Rao managed religious matters, charities, and moral conduct. By distinguishing between internal administration (Peshwa/Sachiv), religious oversight (Pandit Rao), and external diplomacy (Sumant), you can avoid the common trap of confusing these specialized titles.