The medieval Indian writer who refers to the discovery of America is

1. Introduction to Persian Literature in Medieval India (basic)

Welcome to our journey through the literary landscape of Medieval India! To understand the history of this period, we must first look at Persian, which served as the cornerstone of administration, culture, and high literature for centuries. While the Delhi Sultanate introduced Persian to the Indian subcontinent, it was under the Mughal Empire that it reached its zenith as the official court language History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Communalism in Nationalist Politics, p.81. It wasn't just a language for the elite; it became a bridge between various regions, influencing even the Rajput states and the Deccan sultanates History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.218.

One of the most fascinating aspects of Persian literature in India was its synthetic nature. It didn't exist in a vacuum; instead, it deeply engaged with ancient Indian knowledge. This led to a massive "translation movement" where Sanskrit masterpieces like the Mahabharata and the Rajatarangini (the history of Kashmir) were translated into Persian to make them accessible to the ruling class History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.152. A famous example of this cultural fusion is the Tuti Namah (Book of Parrots), a collection of Sanskrit stories adapted into Persian by Zia Nakshabi.

To facilitate this exchange, scholars even created specialized dictionaries. These works provided Hindawi (an early form of Hindi/Urdu) equivalents for Persian terms, helping the two cultures speak the same intellectual language. Notable examples include the Farhang-i-Qawas by Fakhrud-din Qawwas and Miftah-ul-Fazal by Muhammad Shadiabadi History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.152.

Key Work	Author/Translator	Significance
Tuti Namah	Zia Nakshabi	Persian translation of Sanskrit stories.
Farhang-i-Qawas	Fakhrud-din Qawwas	A dictionary linking Persian and Hindawi words.
Rajatarangini	Various	Translation of the history of Kashmir into Persian.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.218; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.152; History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Communalism in Nationalist Politics, p.81

2. The Tradition of Court Historiography (Tarikh) (intermediate)

The tradition of court historiography, often referred to as Tarikh (singular) or Tawarikh (plural), was a cornerstone of medieval Indian intellectual life. Initially, under the Delhi Sultanate, these chronicles were primarily dynastic histories. Scholars like Minhaj-us-Siraj (author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri) and Ziauddin Barani (author of Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi) wrote to document the triumphs of Islam and the political achievements of the Sultans. These early works were often written in Persian and tended to focus heavily on wars, conquests, and the lives of the elite, sometimes using hyperbolic language to praise their patrons History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136.

As we move into the Mughal era, court historiography underwent a massive transformation in both scope and methodology. The most significant figure here is Abu’l Fazl, the court historian of Emperor Akbar. His monumental work, the Akbarnama (and its third volume, the Ain-i-Akbari), represented a major breakthrough. Unlike his predecessors who focused almost exclusively on political machinations and dynastic turmoil, Abu’l Fazl provided a detailed, quantitative analysis of the empire’s people, products, and administrative machinery THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.220. He even looked beyond the borders of India, referencing the discovery of the 'New World' (America) as Alam-i-Nau, which signals the global intellectual reach of the Mughal court.

This tradition wasn't just about recording facts; it was a tool for legitimacy. By meticulously documenting the revenue systems, the relationship between the state and the zamindars (rural magnates), and the diverse cultures of the subcontinent, historians like Abu’l Fazl helped the state project its authority and vision of a central, organized empire THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.197. While Persian remained the language of the court, this era also saw a rich exchange with Sanskrit literature and the nascent development of Urdu, creating a vibrant, multilingual literary landscape History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.219.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.197, 220; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.219

3. Amir Khusrau: The Parrot of India (intermediate)

Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), often hailed as the 'Tuti-e-Hind' (Parrot of India), stands as a monumental figure in the cultural history of the Delhi Sultanate. He was a polymath who seamlessly blended the roles of a court poet, a soldier, a historian, and a Sufi mystic. His life spanned the reigns of several Sultans, from Balban to Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, making him a primary eyewitness to the expansion of the Sultanate. Khusrau’s genius lay in his ability to bridge the gap between the elite Persian court culture and the local Indian traditions, often mixing Persian with Hindavi (an early form of Urdu/Hindi).

One of his most significant contributions was in the realm of historical literature. Unlike many of his contemporaries who focused purely on theological matters, Khusrau documented the military and political triumphs of the Sultans. Notable works include:

• Mifta Ul Futuh: Chronicling the victories of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
• Khazain Ul Futuh: Detailing the military campaigns and victories of Alauddin Khalji.
• Tughlaq Nama: A history of the Tughlaq dynasty History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136.

His work Nu Siphr ('Nine Skies') is particularly famous because it showcases his deep patriotism; in it, he elatedly calls himself an Indian and praises the country’s climate, its flora and fauna, and its intellectual achievements, including the Sanskrit language History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.152.

Beyond politics, Khusrau was a devoted disciple of the Sufi saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. This spiritual connection birthed a musical revolution. He is credited with introducing the qaul—a hymn or "saying" in Arabic—which serves as the foundational opening or closing of a Qawwali performance. This fusion of Persian-Arabic elements with Indian musical sensibilities created a unique form of the Chishti sama' (devotional music) that continues to resonate across South Asian shrines today THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.158.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.136, 152; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.158

4. Bhakti and Sufi Literary Contributions (intermediate)

The Bhakti and Sufi movements revolutionized Indian literature by shifting the medium of spiritual expression from elite languages like Sanskrit and Persian to the vernacular (local) languages of the common people. This 'democratization' of literature meant that complex philosophical truths were now accessible to the masses through catchy songs, poetry, and stories. The Sufi saints of the Chishti silsila, for instance, chose to converse and compose in Hindavi, the language of the people in Delhi and surrounding regions. This tradition of using local idioms was so profound that the verses of Sufi saints like Baba Farid were later preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, highlighting the deep inter-religious respect of the era THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.158.

In the Sufi literary tradition, a unique genre emerged known as the Prem-akhyan (love story). These were long poems or masnavis that used human romance as an allegory for the soul's longing for the Divine. The most famous example is Malik Muhammad Jayasi's Padmavat, which tells the story of Padmini and Ratansen. While it appears to be a folk tale, the trials of the characters symbolize the spiritual hurdles a seeker must overcome to reach God THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.158.

Simultaneously, the Bhakti movement produced a rich corpus of devotional poetry. We see a fascinating social diversity here: Kabir (a weaver), Ravidas (a leather worker), and Sain (a barber) used simple, direct language to challenge the caste system and promote monotheism History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.216. On the other hand, poets like Sur Das, the 'blind bard of Agra,' focused on Saguna Bhakti (devotion to a personal God with forms). His Bal Lila poems about Lord Krishna's childhood and the Gopis' devotion became foundational to Hindi literature, representing the Pushtimarga or the 'way of grace' History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.195.

Tradition	Key Figure	Literary Contribution/Theme
Sufi (Allegory)	Malik Muhammad Jayasi	Padmavat (Prem-akhyan using human love for divine themes)
Bhakti (Nirguna)	Kabir	Simple poems (Dohas) attacking rituals and caste
Bhakti (Saguna)	Sur Das	Krishna's Bal Lila and the concept of Pushtimarga

Sources: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, Bhakti-Sufi Traditions, p.158; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.216; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India, p.195

5. Global Connections: Portuguese and the New World (intermediate)

In the late 15th century, the world began to "shrink" as maritime explorations bridged continents that had been separated for millennia. While we often study the arrival of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498 as the start of the colonial era in India, it is crucial to see this as part of a much larger global synchronization. As European sailors found sea routes to Asia, they simultaneously crossed the Atlantic to the Americas, a landmass that had been cut off from the rest of the world for millions of years India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.55. This era wasn't just about trade; it was about the flow of knowledge.

By the 16th century, the Portuguese had established a string of strategic forts, from Cochin (1503) to Goa (1510), effectively making the Indian Ocean a Portuguese lake for a time A Brief History of Modern India, Advent of the Europeans in India, p.33. This physical presence meant that news of the "New World" (America) traveled quickly to the Mughal Court. Far from being isolated, the intellectual elite of Medieval India were deeply curious about these global shifts. The Indian subcontinent was a central hub where goods, customs, and geographical discoveries from the West and the East converged India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.55.

The most striking evidence of this global awareness is found in the literature of the era, specifically in the works of Abul Fazl, the grand vizier of Emperor Akbar. In his encyclopedic works like the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, Abul Fazl demonstrates that the Mughal administration was well-informed about European maritime discoveries. He even coined the Persian term Alam-i-Nau (meaning "The New World") to describe the Americas. This highlights a fascinating moment in Medieval Indian literature where traditional scholarship met modern global geography, proving that the Mughal world-view was expansive, sophisticated, and remarkably connected to the events unfolding across the Atlantic.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.55; A Brief History of Modern India, Advent of the Europeans in India, p.23, 33; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, The Colonial Era in India, p.87

6. Akbar's Intellectual Policy and the Ibadat Khana (exam-level)

Akbar’s reign marked a seismic shift in the intellectual landscape of Medieval India, moving away from rigid orthodoxy toward a policy of Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace). This philosophy was not merely a political tool for stability but a deeply personal intellectual quest to understand the underlying 'Truth' across all faiths. Influenced by Sufi mysticism and his interactions with diverse scholars, Akbar sought to create a synthesis of Indian and Persian intellectual traditions History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), The Mughal Empire, p.207. This environment allowed literature and science to flourish beyond religious boundaries, making the Mughal court one of the most enlightened centers of the 16th-century world. To institutionalize this curiosity, Akbar established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575. Initially, it served as a forum for Muslim clerics to debate spiritual issues, but Akbar’s dissatisfaction with their narrow sectarianism led him to open its doors to scholars of all religions—including Hindus, Jains, Christians, and Parsis. Although these debates were discontinued in 1582 due to the friction they caused between different religious groups, they fundamentally reshaped the literary output of the era. Scholars like Abul Fazl, the author of the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, epitomized this new 'Mughal Enlightenment' by incorporating global knowledge, including contemporary maritime discoveries and global geography, into their writings History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), The Mughal Empire, p.219. Parallel to these debates, Akbar established the Maktab Khana or the 'House of Translation' at Fatehpur Sikri. This was a monumental literary project aimed at making the classical wisdom of India accessible to the Persian-speaking elite. Major Sanskrit epics were translated into Persian, most notably the Mahabharata, which was titled the Razmnama (The Book of War). Other works like the Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, and the Panchatantra were also translated, often accompanied by exquisite miniature paintings Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Class VIII NCERT, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.41. This cross-pollination of ideas ensured that Medieval Indian literature became a shared heritage rather than a collection of isolated religious texts.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), The Mughal Empire, p.207; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), The Mughal Empire, p.219; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Class VIII NCERT, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.41

7. Abul Fazl: The Architect of Mughal Ideology (exam-level)

Abul Fazl was far more than a mere court historian; he was the intellectual architect of the Mughal state’s ideology. As the vizier and close confidant of Emperor Akbar, he was tasked with providing a historical and philosophical justification for a centralized, multi-religious empire. His masterpiece, the Akbarnama, is a sprawling three-volume history that tracks the Mughal lineage and Akbar’s reign. The most celebrated part of this project is the third volume, the Ain-i-Akbari, which serves as an administrative gazetteer—a detailed manual of the empire’s laws, statistics, and cultural diversity Themes in Indian History Part II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.217.

What sets Abul Fazl apart from his predecessors, such as Ziauddin Barani or Minhaj-us-Siraj, was his scientific and secular approach to history. While earlier chronicles often viewed history through a narrow religious lens, the Ain-i-Akbari sought to capture the social and economic reality of India. It provided intricate quantitative data on everything from crop yields and prices to the traditions of the various subas (provinces) Themes in Indian History Part II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.218. However, historians often note that his work represents a "view from the apex"—it is the empire as seen through the eyes of the central administration, designed to show a perfectly organized and harmonious state.

Abul Fazl also demonstrated a remarkably global perspective. He was aware of the maritime explorations of the era and famously referred to the discovery of the New World (America) as Alam-i-Nau. This intellectual openness mirrored Akbar's own religious policy of Sulh-i-Kul (absolute peace), which Abul Fazl helped articulate to move the state away from orthodox persecution toward a more inclusive governance Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.39. Through his writings, the Emperor was portrayed not just as a king, but as a divinely illuminated guide for all his subjects.

Feature	Akbarnama (Books 1 & 2)	Ain-i-Akbari (Book 3)
Nature	Historical Narrative	Administrative Gazetteer
Focus	Events, genealogy, and the story of Akbar's reign.	Imperial regulations, statistics, and social customs.
Objective	Chronicle the Emperor's life.	Organize the diverse empire into a uniform data set.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.217-218; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.39

8. Global Geography in Mughal Chronicles (exam-level)

During the 16th century, the world underwent a dramatic transformation known as the Age of Discovery. As European sailors like Columbus and Vasco da Gama charted new sea routes, the Indian subcontinent remained a central hub for the flow of goods, people, and, most importantly, knowledge India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.55. While we often view medieval India in isolation, the Mughal court—particularly under Emperor Akbar—was remarkably attuned to these global shifts. This intellectual curiosity is best preserved in the works of Abul Fazl, the Emperor's vizier and author of the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. Abul Fazl’s writings were not merely royal biographies; they were encyclopedic projects that documented everything from the trade of musk and yaks in Awadh to complex administrative statistics Themes in Indian History Part II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.210. Most strikingly, Abul Fazl displays an awareness of the "New World" (America), referring to it as Alam-i-Nau. This inclusion proves that the Mughal information network was sophisticated enough to capture major maritime developments happening thousands of miles away within decades of their occurrence. This global outlook set a precedent for later chroniclers like Abdul Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Kazim, who followed his methodical pattern of history-writing History, class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.219. To understand the uniqueness of this perspective, we can compare the focus of different literary traditions of the era:

Author/Tradition	Primary Focus	Geographical Scope
Abul Fazl	Administrative, Scientific, and Global History	Continental & Global (Alam-i-Nau)
Malik Muhammad Jayasi	Sufi Mysticism and Folklore (e.g., Padmavat)	Regional/Local
Bhakti Poets (e.g., Raskhan)	Devotional Love (Prem-Vatika)	Spiritual/Internal

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II, The Making of a Global World, p.55; Themes in Indian History Part II, Peasants, Zamindars and the State, p.210; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.219; Themes in world history, Nomadic Empires, p.80

9. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

To solve this question, you must synthesize your knowledge of Mughal historiography and the global chronology of the 16th century. In your study of Themes in Indian History Part II (NCERT), you encountered the vast intellectual reach of Akbar’s court and the arrival of the Portuguese on Indian shores. Because European maritime exploration was peaking during this era, information regarding the "New World" began filtering into the Mughal administration through trade and Jesuit missions. As the official court historian and vizier, Abul Fazl was uniquely positioned to document these global shifts in his monumental works, the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, where he explicitly refers to the discovery of America as Alam-i-Nau (the New World).

When approaching the options, the most effective strategy is chronological elimination—a vital skill for any UPSC aspirant. Amir Khusrau (Option B) lived in the 13th and 14th centuries, making it historically impossible for him to know of a 1492 voyage. Similarly, while Malik Muhammad Jayasi (Option A) and Raskhan (Option C) were influential literary figures, their focus was strictly on Sufi mysticism and Bhakti devotion, respectively, rather than the geopolitical developments of the era. UPSC often includes famous names like Khusrau as a "distractor" because students associate him with general intellectualism; however, the correct answer is (D) Abul Fazl because his role as a state historian required a level of geographical awareness and contemporary documentation that the other purely literary figures did not possess.