Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists

List I | List II
I. Moplah revolt | (A) Kerala
II. Pabna revolt | (B) Bihar
III. Eka Movement | (C) Bengal
IV. Birsa Munda revolt | (D) Awadh

1. Causes of Peasant and Tribal Unrest (basic)

To understand the nationalist movement, we must first understand the deep-seated frustration of the people who formed its backbone: the peasants and tribal communities. Their unrest wasn't just a reaction to foreign rule, but a response to a fundamental overhaul of their economic and social existence. The British viewed India primarily as a source of revenue, and to extract it efficiently, they introduced three major Land Revenue Systems: the Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems Nitin Singhania, Land Reforms in India, p.337.

While these systems differed in structure, they shared a common, devastating outcome: the commercialization of land. For the first time, land became a commodity that could be bought, sold, or mortgaged. The British conducted scientific surveys to record land rights, but they primarily recorded the rights of the owners or rent-payers, completely ignoring the traditional entitlements of the actual cultivators, sharecroppers, and tenants Vivek Singh, Land Reforms, p.191. This left the majority of the rural population legally invisible and vulnerable to eviction by the state or landlords.

System	Key Characteristic	Core Grievance
Zamindari	Landlords (Zamindars) collected fixed revenue for the British.	Extreme exploitation and illegal "cesses" (extra taxes) by landlords.
Ryotwari	Revenue was paid directly by the peasant (Ryot) to the State.	The State became a "giant zamindar," often demanding up to 50% of the produce Bipin Chandra, The Structure of the Government and the Economic Policies of the British Empire in India, 1757—1857, p.105.
Mahalwari	Revenue was settled collectively at the village (Mahal) level.	Collective responsibility meant if one farmer failed, the whole village suffered.

Adding to this was the Theory of Economic Drain, popularized by Dadabhai Naoroji. He argued that a significant portion of India’s national product was being siphoned off to Britain through salaries, pensions, and interest on loans, without any material return to India Rajiv Ahir, Economic Impact of British Rule in India, p.548. This drain was often greater than the total land revenue collected from the peasants Rajiv Ahir, Economic Impact of British Rule in India, p.551. Consequently, when crops failed or prices dropped, the peasants had no financial cushion, leading to chronic debt and frequent famines, which eventually exploded into open revolts.

Sources: Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania .(ed 2nd 2021-22), Land Reforms in India, p.337; Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.)[Old NCERT], The Structure of the Government and the Economic Policies of the British Empire in India, 1757—1857, p.105; Indian Economy, Vivek Singh (7th ed. 2023-24), Land Reforms, p.191; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., Economic Impact of British Rule in India, p.548; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., Economic Impact of British Rule in India, p.551

2. Early Civil Rebellions (1763–1857) (basic)

Welcome back! Now that we understand the broad landscape of British expansion, we must look at how the people on the ground reacted. Between 1763 and 1857, India didn't just passively accept colonial rule; it erupted in a series of Civil Rebellions. These weren't led by modern political parties, but by displaced rulers, religious monks, tribal chiefs, and peasants who were pushed to the brink by the East India Company's (EIC) aggressive land revenue policies and social interference.

To master this, think of these rebellions in three distinct categories:

• Religious & Scholarly Resistance: The Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion (1763–1800s) in Bengal is a prime example. These were wandering monks and Sufi saints who were restricted from their traditional pilgrimages by EIC policies NCERT Class VIII, The Colonial Era in India, p.106. Led by figures like Majnum Shah and Bhawani Pathak, they raided Company treasuries. Interestingly, this rebellion featured strong female leadership in Debi Chaudhurani and was later immortalized in Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novel Anandamath—where the song Vande Mataram originated Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.140.
• Traditional Militia Resistance: In Odisha, the Paik Rebellion (1817) broke out. The Paiks were the traditional landed militia (foot soldiers) who lost their rent-free lands and prestige after the British took over in 1803 Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.148. Under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu, they fought against extortionist taxes and the rising price of salt—a basic necessity.
• Tribal Resistance: The Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) was perhaps the most intense pre-1857 tribal uprising. The Santhals of the Rajmahal hills were exploited by 'Dikus' (outsiders like moneylenders) who had the backing of British police. Two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu, led a massive movement to end Company rule and declare their own autonomous zone Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.157.

While these movements were often localized and lacked a unified "national" vision, they were the spiritual ancestors of the later freedom struggle. They proved that the British presence was seen as an alien rule that threatened traditional values and economic survival.

Rebellion	Region	Key Leaders	Key Driver
Sanyasi / Fakir	Bengal	Majnum Shah, Bhawani Pathak	Pilgrimage restrictions & high taxes
Paik Rebellion	Odisha	Bakshi Jagabandhu	Loss of militia lands & Salt tax
Santhal Rebellion	Bihar / Jharkhand	Sidhu and Kanhu	Exploitation by Dikus (outsiders)

Sources: Spectrum, A Brief History of Modern India, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.140, 148, 149, 157; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT, The Colonial Era in India, p.106

3. The Santhal Rebellion: A Case Study (intermediate)

The Santhal Rebellion, also known as the Santhal Hool (1855-56), is one of the most powerful examples of tribal resistance against the British Raj. The Santhals were an agricultural community who had moved into the plains of the Rajmahal hills (modern-day Jharkhand and Bihar) to settle and clear forests for cultivation. To encourage this, the British demarcated a specific area known as the Damin-i-Koh in 1832. This led to a massive demographic surge; for instance, Santhal villages grew from just 40 in 1838 to over 1,400 by 1851 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART III, COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE, p.241. However, this 'settled' life soon turned into a nightmare of exploitation.

The rebellion was triggered by a triple threat: the British state levying heavy taxes, Zamindars (landlords) asserting control over their cleared lands, and Dikus (outsider moneylenders) trapping them in a cycle of debt with exorbitant interest rates. When debts went unpaid, the Santhals' ancestral land was snatched away. Seeing the police and courts supporting these oppressors, the Santhals realized that the colonial system itself was the enemy Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.157. Historically, the Santhals have a rich cultural heritage, identifying as a Dravidian group with an Austric language (Santhali), and they maintained a well-defined social order that they were determined to protect Geography of India, Cultural Setting, p.33.

The uprising broke out in 1855 under the charismatic leadership of two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu. They mobilized thousands of Santhals, declaring an end to the East India Company's rule and proclaiming the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal as autonomous. Armed with bows, arrows, and traditional weapons, they fought a desperate war against the British army. Though the rebellion was brutally suppressed by 1856, it forced the British to rethink their tribal policies. To pacify the region and prevent future outbreaks, the colonial government created a separate administrative unit called the Santhal Pargana, covering 5,500 square miles, where special laws were enacted to protect tribal rights THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART III, COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE, p.242.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.157; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART III (NCERT), COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE, p.241-242; Geography of India (Majid Husain), Cultural Setting, p.33

4. The Rise of Organized Kisan Sabhas (intermediate)

The period following World War I marked a tectonic shift in Indian rural politics. Peasants moved from spontaneous, localized outbursts toward structured, organized resistance known as Kisan Sabhas. This transformation was driven by acute economic distress—high rents, begar (unpaid labor), and bedakhali (eviction from leased land)—and the arrival of nationalist leaders who sought to bridge the gap between the urban intelligentsia and the rural masses India and the Contemporary World – II, Nationalism in India, p.35.

In the United Provinces (UP), the organizational journey began with the UP Kisan Sabha in 1918, supported by Madan Mohan Malaviya. However, as the movement became more radical, the Awadh Kisan Sabha emerged in 1920. Its most charismatic leader was Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi who had previously been an indentured laborer in Fiji. He used traditional cultural symbols, like the Ramcharitmanas, to mobilize peasants against the oppressive talukdars. This phase was crucial because it successfully merged peasant grievances with the Non-Cooperation Movement, drawing leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru into the heart of rural India Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, p.578, 809.

The movement reached its zenith in 1936 with the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at Lucknow. This body gave the peasant movement a truly national character and a unified platform. It functioned as a powerful pressure group, eventually forcing the Indian National Congress to adopt a radical agrarian policy during the Faizpur Session and the 1937 elections Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, p.581. The following table highlights the key organizational milestones:

Organization	Key Leader(s)	Primary Focus
Awadh Kisan Sabha (1920)	Baba Ramchandra, J.L. Nehru	Abolition of begar and bedakhali; social boycott of landlords.
Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929)	Swami Sahjanand Saraswati	Anti-zamindari struggle and Bakasht land issues Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, p.582.
All India Kisan Sabha (1936)	Sahjanand Saraswati (Pres.), N.G. Ranga (Sec.)	National peasant manifesto; influencing Congress agrarian policy.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.578, 581, 582, 809; India and the Contemporary World – II, Nationalism in India, p.35

5. Social Reform and Lower Caste Movements (intermediate)

In the mid-to-late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Indian social landscape witnessed a seismic shift. While early reformers often focused on internal religious purification, a new wave of Lower Caste Movements emerged to challenge the very structure of the caste hierarchy. These movements were built on the 'first principle' that social degradation was not divinely ordained but was a product of historical exploitation. Leaders like Jyotiba Phule and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) argued that for India to be truly free, it first had to dismantle the internal 'slavery' of the caste system.

Jyotiba Phule, hailing from the Mali community in Maharashtra, was a pioneer in this regard. In 1873, he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) to unite the 'backward' classes—including Malis, Telis, and Kunbis—against Brahminical supremacy Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, p.215. Phule used powerful cultural symbols to flip the traditional narrative; for instance, he championed the mythological Rajah Bali as a hero of the masses in opposition to the traditional Aryan symbols. His seminal work, Gulamgiri (Slavery), drew a poignant parallel between the plight of lower castes in India and the Black slaves in America, arguing that education was the ultimate tool for liberation History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), p.302.

Moving into the 20th century, the struggle gained a more political and radical edge in South India under E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, affectionately known as Periyar. He initiated the Self-Respect Movement in 1925, which went beyond mere reform to advocate for a total rejection of Brahminical religion and culture Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, p.226. Periyar’s philosophy was rooted in rationalism and atheism. He sought to liberate the Dravidian identity from what he perceived as North Indian and Aryan domination. By formalizing 'Self-Respect marriages'—conducted without priests or Sanskrit mantras—he aimed to strike at the heart of the ritualistic power held by the upper castes Politics in India since Independence, Class XII, p.116.

Feature	Satyashodhak Samaj (Phule)	Self-Respect Movement (Periyar)
Core Philosophy	Rationality, equality, and social service.	Atheism, Dravidian identity, and rationalism.
Key Strategy	Mass education and cultural re-interpretation.	Rejection of rituals and anti-Hindi agitation.
Major Work	Gulamgiri	Formed the basis for the Justice Party/DK.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements, p.215, 226; History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Towards Modernity, p.302; Politics in India since Independence (NCERT Class XII), Regional Aspirations, p.116

6. Peasant Revolts: Bengal and Awadh Regions (exam-level)

To understand the peasant revolts in Bengal and Awadh, we must look at the underlying colonial land revenue systems. In Bengal, the British introduced the Permanent Settlement, creating a class of powerful Zamindars. Simultaneously, European planters forced peasants into the Indigo system, where farmers were coerced through fraudulent contracts to grow indigo instead of food crops like rice History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Nationalism in India, p.3. This led to the Indigo Revolt (1859-60), led by Digambar and Bishnu Biswas, which was notable for its high degree of organization and the support it received from the urban intelligentsia Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.575.

In the 1870s, Bengal saw the Pabna Agrarian Leagues, where peasants organized to resist the hike in occupancy rents through legal means rather than spontaneous violence. Moving into the 20th century, the Awadh region (modern-day Central/Eastern Uttar Pradesh) became a hotbed of peasant activity. The Eka Movement (Unity Movement) of 1921 surfaced in districts like Hardoi and Bahraich. While it initially grew out of the Non-Cooperation Movement, it soon developed its own radical identity under leaders like Madari Pasi, focusing on the refusal to pay more than the recorded rent and resisting the practice of forced labor (begar).

Movement	Region	Primary Grievance	Key Features
Indigo Revolt	Bengal (Nadia, Pabna)	Forced cultivation of Indigo	Resisted planters' lathiyals; high social unity.
Pabna Revolt	East Bengal	High rents & eviction	Formed Agrarian Leagues; sought legal redress.
Eka Movement	Awadh (Hardoi, Sitapur)	High rents & illegal cesses	Religious rituals used for mobilization; Madari Pasi leadership.

By the 1920s, these regional grievances began to merge with the national struggle. Leaders like Jitendralal Banerji and Someshwarprasad Chaudhuri organized peasants in Bengal to resist settlement operations, showing how local agrarian anger was being channeled into the broader anti-imperialist movement Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, After Nehru, p.807-809.

Sources: History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Rise of Nationalism in India, p.3; Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.575; Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.), After Nehru..., p.807

7. Tribal Uprisings: Birsa Munda and Moplah (exam-level)

To understand the history of resistance in India, we must look beyond the urban intelligentsia to the heartbeat of rural and tribal India. The Munda Rebellion and the Moplah Revolt represent two distinct yet powerful reactions against the colonial machinery. While one was rooted in the preservation of ancient tribal structures, the other was a complex mix of agrarian distress and religious identity. Both, however, were responses to the heavy-handed socio-economic changes introduced by the British.

The Munda Ulgulan (meaning 'The Great Tumult') of 1899-1900 was led by Birsa Munda in the Chotanagpur region. The Mundas traditionally practiced a system of common land holding called Khuntkatti. The British, however, replaced this with private ownership, allowing Jagirdars, Thikadars, and moneylenders to grab tribal lands History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.292. Birsa Munda, born into poverty in 1874, emerged as a charismatic leader who declared himself a divine messenger sent to restore Munda rule. He didn't just fight for land; he fought for the dignity of his people, urging them to stop paying rent to landlords and to drive out the British and non-tribal outsiders (Dikus) Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.157.

On the southwestern coast, the Moplah (or Mapilla) Rebellion in the Malabar region of Kerala followed a different trajectory. Initially, between 1836 and 1854, the Moplahs—who were mostly Muslim tenants—rose against the oppressive Hindu landlords (Janmis) and the British officials who supported them due to high revenue demands and land evictions Spectrum, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.153. The most famous phase occurred in 1921, during the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements. While it began as an agrarian revolt against colonial authority, it eventually took on a communal character, leading to a rift between the Congress leadership and the Moplahs History, Class XII (Tamilnadu State Board), Communalism in Nationalist Politics, p.77.

Feature	Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan)	Moplah Rebellion
Region	Chotanagpur (Bihar/Jharkhand)	Malabar (Kerala)
Primary Cause	Disruption of Khuntkatti (communal land)	High rent, evictions, and religious identity
Key Leader	Birsa Munda	Varied (later linked to Khilafat leaders)

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.292; Spectrum: A Brief History of Modern India, People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857, p.153, 157; History, Class XII (Tamilnadu State Board), Communalism in Nationalist Politics, p.77

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

This question synthesizes your understanding of Peasant and Tribal Movements during the British Raj. By linking specific grievances to their geographic roots, you can see how the building blocks of agrarian history come together. The Moplah Revolt (1921) emerged from the distress of Muslim tenants against Hindu landlords in the Malabar coast of Kerala, while the Pabna Revolt (1873–76) represented the organized resistance of tenant farmers against zamindari excesses in Bengal. Recognizing these regional epicenters is the first step in decoding the complex map of colonial resistance found in India's Struggle for Independence by Bipan Chandra.

To arrive at the correct answer, walk through the associations systematically: match the Birsa Munda revolt (the 'Ulgulan') to the Chotanagpur region, which was historically part of Bihar. Then, identify the Eka Movement (1921), which saw peasants in the Awadh districts (like Hardoi and Bahraich) unite against high rents. By aligning I-A, II-C, III-D, and IV-B, you successfully navigate to Option (A). A key tip for your preparation: always visualize these movements on a map to solidify the link between the community, the leader, and the land.

UPSC often uses common traps by swapping regions with similar agrarian profiles. For instance, options (B) and (D) misplace the Birsa Munda revolt or the Moplah revolt to test if you are confusing the northern and southern theaters of protest. A frequent stumbling block is looking for 'Jharkhand' for the Munda rebellion; remember that in historical contexts and older PYQs, this region is categorized under Bihar. Do not let modern state boundaries cloud your historical geographic knowledge.