Consider the following statements about the travellers who visited India: 1. Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi from Herat visited Delhi and Daulatabad. 2. Ibn Battuta provides detailed accounts of both Delhi and Daulatabad. 3. According to Francois Bernier there was no private property in land in Mughal India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. Sources of Medieval History: Foreign Accounts (basic)

To understand the medieval world, we often look through the eyes of those who were 'outsiders.' While local chronicles often focused on praising kings, foreign travelers provided a unique perspective on the social, economic, and urban life of India. These travelers came for various reasons—as pilgrims, merchants, or diplomatic envoys—and their accounts serve as a vital 'outsider’s gaze' on Indian society. For instance, while ancient Greek texts like the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea gave us our first reliable look at Indian ports and trade History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period, p.83, medieval accounts offer even richer detail about the interiors of the subcontinent.

Two of the most influential medieval travelers were Ibn Battuta and Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi. Ibn Battuta, a 14th-century Moroccan scholar, was fascinated by Indian cities. He described Delhi as a vast city with a huge population, the largest in India, but he also noted that Daulatabad (in modern-day Maharashtra) was so large it successfully rivaled Delhi in size THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.127. In contrast, the 15th-century Persian envoy Abdur Razzaq focused his attention on the South, leaving behind a mesmerized account of the Vijayanagara Empire, specifically praising its seven layers of massive fortifications THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.179.

As we move into the 17th century, the nature of these accounts shifted from wonder to socio-economic analysis. The French traveler Francois Bernier spent twelve years in the Mughal court. He is famous for his theory on landownership; he claimed the Mughal Emperor was the sole owner of all land. Bernier argued that this lack of private property led to the 'ruin of agriculture' and economic decline, a view that deeply influenced how Europeans perceived the 'Oriental' world for centuries THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.130. Comparing these accounts helps us see how different travelers prioritized different aspects of Indian life:

Traveler	Century	Origin	Primary Focus
Ibn Battuta	14th	Morocco	Urban centers (Delhi/Daulatabad) and social customs.
Abdur Razzaq	15th	Herat (Persia)	The splendor and fortification of Vijayanagara.
Francois Bernier	17th	France	Mughal administration and landownership patterns.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period, p.83; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.127; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.179; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.130

2. The Early Medieval Lens: Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind (intermediate)

To understand the intellectual culture of early medieval India, one must look through the eyes of Al-Biruni, an 11th-century polymath from Khwarizm. His work, the Kitab-ul-Hind, is not a mere travelogue but a systematic, encyclopedic study of Indian society, religion, and science. Written in Arabic, the text is celebrated for its clarity and geometric structure. Most of its 80 chapters follow a rigorous pattern: they begin with a central question, provide a detailed description based on Sanskritic traditions, and conclude with a cross-cultural comparison Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.117. This precision reflects Al-Biruni's background as a mathematician and astronomer, making his work one of the most objective foreign accounts of the era. Al-Biruni’s approach to the caste system is a masterclass in comparative sociology. Rather than viewing Indian social stratification as an isolated oddity, he sought parallels in other civilizations. For instance, he noted that Ancient Persia also recognized four social categories, including knights, priests, and scientists Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.124. By doing so, he suggested that social divisions were a universal human phenomenon. However, Al-Biruni was not an uncritical observer. While he documented the Brahmanical rules of the caste system, he explicitly rejected the notion of pollution. He argued that the idea of certain groups being inherently 'impure' was contrary to the laws of nature, asserting that everything which becomes impure eventually strives to return to its original state of purity Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.125.

Feature	Al-Biruni's Methodology
Primary Language	Arabic (intended for a broad intellectual audience along the frontiers).
Key Sources	Deep study of Sanskrit normative texts like the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita.
Analytical Framework	Comparative analysis, often using Persian or Greek parallels to explain Indian concepts.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.116, 117, 124, 125

3. Ibn Battuta: The Global Traveler and the Sultanate (intermediate)

Ibn Battuta, a 14th-century Moroccan traveler from Tangier, represents the pinnacle of medieval global mobility. Born into a family of legal experts, he was trained in Islamic religious law (shari'a), but he famously prioritized personal experience over book-based learning. His travels, recorded in the Arabic work Rihla (The Travels), offer an unparalleled glimpse into the social and cultural life of the medieval world Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.118. By the time he reached India, he was already a veteran of a global communication network that connected China to North Africa, allowing him to share ideas and anecdotes with a cosmopolitan elite of scholars and rulers across the Islamic world Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.126.

Battuta arrived in Sind in 1333, traveling overland through Central Asia specifically to seek the patronage of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi. The Sultan, known for being a complex mix of a generous intellectual and a merciless ruler, was so impressed by Battuta’s scholarship that he appointed him the qazi (judge) of Delhi Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.118. This position gave the traveler a front-row seat to the administration and urban life of the Sultanate, though his relationship with the Sultan was volatile — he was later imprisoned before being restored to favor and sent as an envoy to China.

One of Ibn Battuta’s most significant contributions is his vivid portrayal of medieval Indian cities. He described Delhi as a vast, populous, and magnificent city, calling it the largest in the entire Indian subcontinent. However, he also highlighted that Daulatabad (in modern-day Maharashtra) was of comparable size and scale, effectively rivaling Delhi in its grandeur Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.127. This observation is crucial because it reflects the shift in the Sultanate's center of gravity during the 14th century, particularly after Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s controversial attempt to transfer his capital to the south.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.118; Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.126; Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.127

4. Medieval Urbanization: Delhi and Daulatabad (intermediate)

In the fourteenth century, the Indian subcontinent witnessed a peak in medieval urbanization, with **Delhi** and **Daulatabad** emerging as the two most significant urban centers. To understand these cities, we must look through the eyes of the Moroccan traveler **Ibn Battuta**, who arrived during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He described Delhi as a vast, densely populated metropolis, considered the largest in India, characterized by its crowded streets and vibrant, colorful markets Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p. 127. These cities were not just political seats but hubs of a global communication network that connected India to China, North Africa, and Europe, fostering a cosmopolitan culture where Arabic, Persian, and Turkish speakers exchanged ideas Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p. 126.
The story of **Daulatabad** (formerly Devagiri in Maharashtra) is inextricably linked to Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s bold but controversial initiative to shift his capital. He believed that a central location would allow for better administrative control over the Deccan and South India Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p. 27. While historical accounts often focus on the hardship of the 1,000 km forced migration, Ibn Battuta provides a glimpse into the city's grandeur, noting that Daulatabad was so large it successfully rivaled Delhi in size Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p. 127.
Urban life in these cities was marked by high levels of specialization and social sophistication. A unique feature of Daulatabad was **Tarababad**, a dedicated marketplace for male and female singers. This market was a center of high culture, featuring shops decorated with carpets and swings for performers, and a central cupola where the chief of musicians presided every Thursday Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p. 128. This level of planned urban entertainment highlights that medieval cities were far more than just fortified clusters; they were centers of leisure, art, and immense economic drive.

Feature	Delhi	Daulatabad
Status	Primary capital and largest city in the 14th century.	The "rival" city; intended central capital for the Deccan.
Key Highlight	Vast population and massive fortifications.	Tarababad (The market for singers) and a strong hill fort.
Geographic Role	Hub of North Indian power.	Central location to control the South History Class XI (TN State Board), p.145.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.126-128; Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Class VIII NCERT), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27; History Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.145

5. Foreign Travellers in South India: Vijayanagara Focus (exam-level)

To understand the medieval intellectual and physical landscape of South India, we must look through the eyes of those who braved long journeys to reach the "City of Victory"—Vijayanagara. These accounts are not merely travelogues; they are the primary reason we can reconstruct the grandeur of a city that was largely destroyed after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186. The empire, founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, was a magnet for global interest due to its control over lucrative overseas trade and its sophisticated urban planning Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.171.

The chronicles of these visitors are typically categorized by the century of their arrival, reflecting the changing geopolitical tides of the medieval world:

Century	Traveler & Origin	Key Contribution/Focus
15th Century	Nicolo de Conti (Italy) & Abdur Razzaq (Persia)	Described the massive scale of the city and its architectural splendor. Razzaq, an ambassador, was famously impressed by the seven layers of fortifications that even enclosed agricultural land Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.176.
Late 15th Century	Afanasii Nikitin (Russia)	A merchant who provided a rare non-Western European perspective on the commercial life of the region Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.176.
16th Century	Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz (Portugal)	Their accounts coincide with the peak of the empire under Krishnadeva Raya. They provide detailed records of the military, the bazaar system, and the elaborate rituals of the court Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.176.

A crucial point for your UPSC preparation is how modern historians use these accounts. In 1800, Colonel Colin Mackenzie (the first Surveyor General of India) brought the ruins of Hampi to light. However, his physical surveys would have been incomplete without the "intellectual map" provided by these travelers. By collating foreign accounts with local literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit, as well as temple inscriptions, scholars were able to breathe life back into the ruins of Hampi Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.170.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186; Themes in Indian History Part II (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.170, 171, 176

6. European Perspectives: Bernier and Land Ownership (exam-level)

To understand the European gaze on Medieval India, we must look at Francois Bernier, a French physician and traveler who spent twelve years (1656–1668) in the Mughal Empire. Bernier’s writings were not merely travelogues; they were political critiques designed to influence the French monarchy under Louis XIV Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.122. His central thesis was the lack of private property in land. Bernier argued that the Mughal Emperor was the sole owner of all land, which he distributed among his nobles at will. Because no one could pass land to their children, Bernier believed there was no incentive to improve the soil or invest in long-term productivity, leading to a landscape of "ruined towns" and "pestilential marshes" Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.130-132.

Bernier’s description of India as a land of "beggars and barbarians" was intended as a warning to Europe. He believed that the "merits" of private property were the foundation of European prosperity and that the state ownership he observed in India was the root cause of its economic decline Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.131. This perspective deeply influenced later Western thinkers like Montesquieu, who developed the theory of Oriental Despotism. According to this theory, Asian rulers held absolute authority over subjects kept in a state of perpetual poverty because they lacked ownership rights Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.132.

However, modern historians and even contemporary Mughal records offer a very different picture. While Bernier saw the land revenue collected by the state as "rent" (implying the King was the landlord), Mughal officials like Abu’l Fazl described it as "remunerations of sovereignty" Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5, p.132. This meant the revenue was a tax paid by the subjects to the King in exchange for protection, rather than a rent for land the King owned.

Feature	Bernier’s Perspective (European View)	Mughal Official Records (Ain-i-Akbari)
Land Ownership	Crown/Emperor ownership only.	Private/Peasant occupancy existed.
Nature of Revenue	Rent (paid to a landlord).	Tax (remuneration for protection).
Social Structure	Undifferentiated impoverished masses.	Complex social hierarchy of peasants and zamindars.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers, p.122, 130, 131, 132

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Congratulations on completing the module! You have now seen how individual travelers like Ibn Battuta, Abdur Razzaq, and Francois Bernier acted as lenses through which the medieval world was recorded. This PYQ tests your ability to synthesize those specific observations. To arrive at the correct answer, start with the descriptions of urban centers. As noted in Themes in Indian History Part II (NCERT), Ibn Battuta was struck by the scale of Indian cities; he specifically described Delhi as a vast metropolis and noted that Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) was so large it successfully challenged Delhi in size. This confirms Statement 2 is correct. Similarly, Statement 3 aligns with your learning on Bernier’s Western-centric critique; he famously argued that the Mughal King owned all land, a lack of private property that he believed led to the empire's stagnation.

The key to solving this question efficiently is identifying the geographical mismatch in Statement 1. While Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi was indeed a diplomat from Herat, his detailed chronicles are the primary source for the Vijayanagara Empire in South India, specifically the city of Hampi, rather than the Delhi Sultanate's capital or Daulatabad. UPSC frequently uses this geographic swap trap—assigning a traveler to the wrong region or dynasty—to test if you can distinguish between the Sultanate/Mughal observers and those who visited the Deccan kingdoms.

By identifying that Statement 1 is incorrect, you can use the process of elimination to remove options (A), (B), and (C) entirely. This leaves you with the Correct Answer: (D) 2 and 3 only. Always remember that Bernier’s observations on land ownership (Statement 3) were a cornerstone of European debates on "Oriental Despotism," even though modern historians and the Ain-i-Akbari suggest the reality of land rights was far more complex than he claimed.