Which of the following did not constitute part of the army reforms of Sher Shah ?

1. Military Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate: Alauddin Khilji (basic)

To understand the military evolution of medieval India, we must start with Alauddin Khilji (r. 1296–1316), the architect of the first truly centralized military state in the Delhi Sultanate. Before his time, the Sultanate relied heavily on the Iqta system, where land was assigned to nobles (Iqtadars) who were expected to maintain troops for the Sultan Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Class VIII NCERT, p. 53. However, Alauddin realized that to repel the constant threat of Mongol invasions and to expand deep into Southern India, he needed a professional, standing army directly loyal to the crown rather than to individual nobles.

Alauddin’s most significant contribution was the professionalization of the rank and file. He became the first Sultan to pay his soldiers entirely in cash from the royal treasury, rather than through land grants. To ensure that the state was getting what it paid for and to eliminate corruption, he introduced two revolutionary administrative tools:

• Dagh: The branding of horses with a royal mark to prevent soldiers from replacing high-quality warhorses with inferior ones.
• Huliya (or Chehra): A detailed descriptive roll or identity record of every soldier to prevent the practice of sending proxies or "substitutes" during inspections or war.

These systems were so effective at maintaining discipline and transparency that they were later revived and perfected by Sher Shah Suri nearly two centuries later History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), p. 202.

Beyond administration, Alauddin’s military legacy is defined by his grand strategy. While he fortified the northwestern frontiers to successfully repel the Mongol forces, he simultaneously dispatched his trusted slave-general, Malik Kafur, on daring expeditions to the far south, reaching as far as Madurai and Rameswaram Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Class VIII NCERT, p. 26. This dual-front capability—defending against the world's most feared cavalry (Mongols) while conquering the Deccan—earned him the title Sikander-i-Sani (the Second Alexander).

Feature	Pre-Khilji Military System	Khilji’s Reforms
Payment	Land grants (Iqtas)	Direct cash salary from the Center
Verification	Minimal; reliant on noble's honesty	Strict (Dagh and Huliya)
Loyalty	To the local Iqtadar (Noble)	Directly to the Sultan

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.26, 53; History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Sher Shah and Sur Dynasty, p.202

2. Sher Shah's Central and Local Administration (basic)

To understand Sher Shah Suri’s administration, we must first look at his philosophy of power. Coming after the chaotic end of the Lodi dynasty, Sher Shah realized that a stable empire required absolute centralization. He did not want his governors to act like independent kings. A classic example of this was when he suppressed the Governor of Bengal, Khizr Khan, who had begun behaving like a sovereign after marrying a local princess History, Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202. To prevent such insubordination, Sher Shah divided his empire into a strict hierarchy, ensuring that every official was directly accountable to the center. At the local level, Sher Shah’s system was a masterpiece of organization. He divided his empire into Sarkars (districts), which were further subdivided into Parganas (groups of villages). Each unit had specific officers: the Shiqdar (maintained law and order) and the Munsif (dealt with civil justice and land revenue). This system ensured that the central government had its 'eyes and ears' even in remote corners of the kingdom, a structure so efficient that it later served as the blueprint for the Mughal Emperor Akbar Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53. Because your focus is on warfare, we must highlight his military administration. Sher Shah revived the rigorous systems of Alauddin Khilji to ensure his army remained loyal and professional. He maintained a massive standing army of roughly 150,000 cavalry and 25,000 infantry History, Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202. To prevent the common corruption of 'ghost soldiers' or sub-standard horses, he strictly enforced two practices:

• Dagh: The branding of horses with a royal mark so they couldn't be replaced with inferior ones.
• Huliya (or Chehra): Maintaining a detailed descriptive roll (physical description) of every soldier to prevent proxies from showing up for duty.

Unlike earlier rulers who relied on the Jagirdari system (giving land to generals), Sher Shah preferred to pay his soldiers in cash, ensuring their loyalty was to him personally, not to a local landlord.

Sources: History (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.53

3. Land Revenue and State Finance under the Surs (intermediate)

To understand the military might of the Sur Empire, we must first look at its wallet. Sher Shah Suri realized that a professional, standing army could only be maintained if the state had a steady, predictable, and centralized flow of income. He revolutionized state finance by moving away from vague guesses about crop yields toward a system based on actual measurement of land. This system, often called the Rai, involved calculating the average produce of land by classifying it into three categories—good, middling, and bad. The state’s share was generally fixed at one-third of the produce, which provided the financial bedrock needed to pay a massive force of 150,000 cavalry and 25,000 infantry in cash rather than through land grants.

Sher Shah’s administrative genius lay in his highly centralized government. To prevent the provincial insubordination that had plagued his predecessors, he divided his empire into Sarkars (districts) and Parganas (sub-districts), each overseen by officials directly accountable to him History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14, p. 202. This structure ensured that revenue reached the central treasury without being siphoned off by local intermediaries. By paying his soldiers in cash, he ensured their direct loyalty to the throne, effectively bypassing the Jagirdari system where soldiers often felt more loyal to their local land-holding lord than to the Sultan.

Beyond land, Sher Shah stabilized the economy through currency and trade reforms. He introduced the silver Rupia and the copper Dam, which remained the standard for centuries. To boost the merchant economy—which in turn funded his military campaigns—he simplified trade taxes. Instead of multiple tolls, traders were only taxed at two points: the point of entry and the point of sale History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14, p. 202. This ease of commerce ensured that the state's coffers were always full enough to sustain its heavy investments in fortifications and gunpowder technology.

Feature	Pre-Sur System (Feudal)	Sher Shah’s System (Centralized)
Payment	Land grants (Jagirs)	Direct cash payments
Assessment	Vague estimates/Tribute	Measurement and crop-rate (Rai)
Trade Tax	Multiple local tolls	Entry and Sale points only

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202

4. The Gunpowder Revolution: Babur's Military Innovation (intermediate)

The arrival of Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur in 1526 marked a paradigm shift in Indian warfare, often referred to as the Gunpowder Revolution. While gunpowder was first invented by the Chinese and had reached India earlier through various trade and regional conflicts, Babur’s innovation lay in the scientific integration of artillery and matchlock guns into a cohesive tactical system. At the First Battle of Panipat, Babur faced the numerically superior forces of Ibrahim Lodi. Despite being outnumbered, he secured a decisive victory through strategic positioning and the deployment of field guns operated by specialized crews History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.200. Babur utilized what is often called the Ottoman (Rumi) method of warfare. This involved creating a defensive barrier—often using carts chained together—behind which his artillery (large cannon-like weapons) and matchlock men could fire with relative safety. This was perfectly synchronized with the Tulughma, a flanking maneuver where fast-moving cavalry encircled the enemy. This combination of firepower and mobility was revolutionary; it rendered traditional Indian military reliance on slow-moving elephant corps highly vulnerable, as the noise and impact of cannons would often cause the elephants to panic and trample their own ranks Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.36. A critical distinction in Babur's military machine was the emphasis on transportable artillery. Unlike the heavy, static siege guns used by earlier regional powers, Babur’s field artillery consisted of units that were transportable and could be operated by small teams to adjust to the flow of battle. While later rulers like Sher Shah Suri used gunpowder extensively, his artillery was generally heavier and less mobile compared to the swiftly moving artillery innovations brought by Babur and later perfected by Akbar History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.200; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.36; History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202

5. Comparison: Sur Army vs. Early Mughal Warfare (intermediate)

To understand the military landscape of 16th-century India, we must look at the fascinating rivalry between the Sur Dynasty and the early Mughals. While both were powerhouse forces, their strengths lay in different areas: the Suris excelled in administrative discipline and centralization, while the early Mughals (starting with Babur) introduced technological shifts in field warfare.

Sher Shah Suri’s military genius was rooted in his revival of the systems first introduced by Alauddin Khilji. He realized that the primary weakness of medieval Indian armies was the corruption and independence of tribal nobles. To fix this, he shifted away from the traditional Jagirdari system (where land was given in lieu of pay) and preferred paying his soldiers in cash. This ensured that the soldiers' loyalty was directly to him, the Sultan, rather than to a local intermediary. To prevent fraud, he strictly enforced Dagh (branding of horses) and Huliya (maintaining descriptive rolls of every soldier), ensuring that a noble couldn't present a 'substitute' soldier or a poor-quality horse during inspections History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14, p. 202.

In contrast, the early Mughals under Babur and Humayun brought a different flavor of warfare from Central Asia. While Sher Shah commanded a massive standing army of approximately 150,000 cavalry and 25,000 infantry, the Mughals focused on Mobile Artillery. Sher Shah was no stranger to gunpowder—he famously died in 1545 due to a gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar—but his artillery was generally heavy and better suited for sieges rather than rapid field maneuvers History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14, p. 202. The Mughals perfected 'swiftly moving' artillery that could be deployed quickly on the battlefield to break enemy formations.

Feature	Sur Army (Sher Shah)	Early Mughal Army (Babur/Humayun)
Primary Strength	Administrative discipline and centralization.	Technological innovation and field tactics.
Discipline Tools	Dagh (branding) and Huliya (descriptive rolls).	Central Asian tribal bonds and professional gunners.
Artillery	Heavy, often used for sieges.	Mobile field artillery (Rumi system).
Payment	Strong preference for Cash payments.	Evolution toward the Mansabdari/Jagir system.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202

6. Detailed Military Reforms of Sher Shah Suri (exam-level)

To understand the military success of Sher Shah Suri, we must look at how he professionalized his forces. While he was a brilliant diplomat and tactician who emerged as the chief of Afghans in India, his real strength lay in his administrative discipline History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14, p. 202. He realized that a fragmented army led by independent chieftains was unreliable. Therefore, he revived and strictly enforced the military systems originally introduced by Alauddin Khilji two centuries prior. This included maintaining a massive standing army at the center, consisting of approximately 150,000 cavalry and 25,000 infantry, all under his direct control. To eliminate corruption and ensure that the state got what it paid for, Sher Shah reintroduced two vital systems: Dagh (the branding of horses) to prevent the substitution of quality mounts with inferior ones, and Huliya (the maintenance of descriptive rolls/records of soldiers) to prevent 'ghost' soldiers and proxy attendance. Furthermore, Sher Shah made a significant shift in how soldiers were compensated. He preferred paying salaries in cash rather than through the Jagirdari system for his troops, which ensured their direct loyalty to the Sultan rather than to local intermediaries or landlords.

Reform Measure	Purpose & Impact
Dagh System	Branding of horses with the royal mark to prevent corruption and the use of inferior animals during inspections.
Huliya/Chehra	Detailed physical descriptions of every soldier kept on record to prevent fraudulent recruitment and impersonation.
Cash Salaries	Moving away from military Jagirs (land grants) to ensure the army remained loyal to the central treasury.
Heavy Artillery	Utilized effectively in sieges (like Kalinjar), though it remained less mobile than the 'swiftly moving artillery' of the Mughals.

It is important to note that while Sher Shah was a pioneer in using gunpowder and artillery—tragically dying in a gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar—his artillery was primarily heavy and stationary. The innovation of mobile artillery (swiftly moving cannons) is actually credited to the Mughal Emperor Babur and later perfected by Akbar History, Class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14, p. 202. Sher Shah’s legacy, however, provided the administrative blueprint that even Akbar would later build upon.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 14: The Mughal Empire, p.202

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

To solve this question, you must connect Sher Shah Suri’s role as a bridge between the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Having studied the centralization of power, you know Sher Shah heavily borrowed from the military blueprints of Alauddin Khilji to stabilize his brief but impactful reign. The core of his reform was shifting loyalty from tribal chiefs to the sovereign, which necessitated the cash payment to soldiers and a large army at the centre. This question tests if you can distinguish between these structural administrative reforms and the specific technological innovations in weaponry brought by the Mughals.

The correct answer is (B) Introduction of a swiftly moving artillery. While Sher Shah was a master of siege warfare and utilized gunpowder—famously dying due to an accidental explosion at the Siege of Kalinjar—the tactical innovation of mobile or "swiftly moving" artillery is historically credited to Babur. Babur’s use of the Rumi method and light, maneuverable cannons was the decisive factor at Panipat. In contrast, Sher Shah’s strength lay in systemic discipline: he reintroduced the branding of horses (Dagh) and descriptive rolls (Huliya) to prevent corruption, ensuring that the state paid for actual, high-quality cavalry rather than "paper" soldiers as noted in History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board).

UPSC often uses functional similarities as traps. Because Sher Shah used cannons, many students mistakenly assume he pioneered artillery reforms. However, the trap lies in the adjective "swiftly moving." Options (A), (C), and (D) represent the Khalji-style centralization that Sher Shah perfected to bypass the inefficient Jagirdari system, as highlighted in NIOS History Module 2. Always look for these specific technical differentiators—like mobility in artillery—to distinguish between the Suri and Mughal military contributions.