Which empire did Niccolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Afanasy Nikitin and Fernao Nuniz visit ?

1. Rise of the 'City of Victory': The Sangama Dynasty (basic)

Welcome to your first step in mastering the history of the Vijayanagara Empire, often called the 'City of Victory.' To understand this empire, we must look back to the year 1336, a period of great political flux in South India. The empire was founded by two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I. According to historical tradition and inscriptions, these brothers were the sons of a man named Sangama, which is why the first ruling family is known as the Sangama Dynasty Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.171. Before establishing their own kingdom, the brothers served under the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka, eventually asserting their independence following the decline of Hoysala power History Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180.

The rise of Vijayanagara wasn't just a military event; it was a spiritual and cultural one. Tradition tells us that a renowned Saiva saint and scholar named Vidyaranya (also known as Madhava) played a pivotal role. He is said to have persuaded the brothers to abandon their service to the Delhi Sultanate (specifically the Tughluqs) and return to their roots to establish a kingdom that would protect local traditions History Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180. Strategically located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, the city became a fortress that defended the south against northern incursions while simultaneously absorbing architectural and political ideas from its neighbors.

While we often think of Vijayanagara as a single entity, it was actually ruled by four distinct dynasties over three centuries. The Sangama dynasty was the first and longest-reigning, lasting until 1485 Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173. During this time, they established the empire's frontiers, competing with the Gajapati rulers of Orissa and the Deccan Sultans for control over fertile river valleys and lucrative overseas trade routes.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.171, 173; History Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180

2. Administrative Governance: The Amara-Nayaka System (intermediate)

The Amara-Nayaka system was the administrative and military backbone of the Vijayanagara Empire, often described as its most significant political innovation. Under this system, the kings (Rayas) assigned specific territories, known as amaram, to military commanders called Amara-Nayakas. These chiefs were responsible for collecting taxes and dues from peasants, craftspersons, and merchants within their assigned regions. Crucially, they did not keep all the revenue; a portion was used for their personal maintenance, while the rest was dedicated to maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants, which provided the Raya with a ready and formidable military force Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175. Historians believe that many features of this system were inspired by the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate, yet it was adapted to the unique socio-political fabric of Southern India. Beyond military duties, the Amara-Nayakas played a vital role in local development by funding the maintenance of temples and irrigation works. This ensured that the agricultural economy remained productive, which in turn secured the empire's wealth. While many of these chiefs were local and spoke Telugu or Kannada, they often migrated with peasants in search of fertile land to settle Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175. To ensure these powerful chiefs did not become independent warlords, the Vijayanagara kings exercised several layers of control:

Mechanism of Control	Description
Transfers	Kings frequently transferred Nayakas from one area to another to prevent them from building deep local roots and rebelling.
Annual Tribute	Nayakas were required to send a portion of their revenue to the king annually as a mark of subordination.
Court Attendance	They had to appear personally in the royal court, especially during major festivals, bearing expensive gifts to show their loyalty Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175.

Despite these checks, the relationship was often tense. Nayakas frequently asserted their power by continuing the architectural and building traditions of the rulers, and in periods of central weakness, they were known to rebel, requiring the kings to assert their authority through military action Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.183.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175; Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.183; Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.184

3. The Golden Age: Reign of Krishnadeva Raya (intermediate)

To understand the Golden Age of the Vijayanagara Empire, we must look at the reign of Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529). He belonged to the Tuluva dynasty, which took over after the Sangama and Saluva lines. His rule is often cited by historians as the peak of South Indian medieval history because he achieved a rare balance between military expansion and cultural sophistication. Unlike many rulers who were either purely conquerors or purely patrons, Raya excelled at both. Within just a few years of taking the throne, he secured the fertile Raichur Doab (1512), subdued the Gajapati rulers of Orissa (1514), and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520). These victories weren't just about land; they created a secure environment where trade, art, and religion could flourish. Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.173

Culturally, his reign is termed the "Classical Phase" of Telugu literature. Krishnadeva Raya was a polyglot and a scholar himself, earning the titles Abhinava Bhoja and Andhra Pitamaha. He famously wrote the Amuktamalyada in Telugu—an epic poem about the Tamil Alwar saint Andal—and several Sanskrit works like Jambavati Kalyanam. His court was famously adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (eight elephants), a group of eight legendary Telugu poets who represented the pillars of his literary world. Among them, Allasani Peddanna (the author of Manucharita) held the highest rank, followed by the legendary wit Tenali Rama. History, Class XI (TN State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.185-186

Beyond the books, the physical landscape of the empire changed under his watch. He added magnificent Gopurams (monumental gateways) to major temples like Virupaksha and built the Vittala Temple complex. He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram, named after his mother. This era wasn't just about royal luxury; it was a period where regional languages like Telugu, Kannada, and even Malayalam (which was gaining a distinct identity) found deep patronage and stability. History, Class XI (TN State Board), The Mughal Empire, p.219

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173; History, Class XI (TN State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180, 185, 186; History, Class XI (TN State Board), The Mughal Empire, p.219

4. Geopolitical Rivalries: The Bahmani Sultanate and the Raichur Doab (intermediate)

To understand the history of Southern India, one must look at the Raichur Doab — the fertile 'Mesopotamia' of the Deccan. This wedge of land, situated between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, was the primary bone of contention between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate for over two centuries History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 176. The rivalry wasn't merely about land; it was a struggle for economic survival and prestige, involving the control of fertile agricultural tax bases, strategic forts, and the highly lucrative international horse trade, which was essential for maintaining a superior cavalry History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 181.

The geopolitical landscape was a complex 'triple-threat' match. While Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis fought in the west, the Gajapati Kingdom of Orissa often pressed from the northeast, creating a shifting triangle of alliances. To manage these constant frontier wars, the Bahmani rulers divided their kingdom into four administrative provinces called tarafs, while Vijayanagara relied on its military governors, the Nayakas History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 176. These endemic wars eventually exhausted both empires financially and physically, leading to the fragmentation of the Bahmani Sultanate into five smaller Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda, Bidar, and Berar History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 187.

The rivalry reached its catastrophic climax in 1565 at the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (commonly known as the Battle of Talikota). In a rare moment of unity, the Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition to defeat the Vijayanagara forces led by the chief minister Rama Raya THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p. 173. The city of Vijayanagara was subsequently sacked and left in ruins, marking the beginning of the end for the once-mighty empire as power shifted further east to the Aravidu dynasty Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p. 36.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.176, 181, 187; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.36

5. The Urban Landscape: Architecture and Public Works (exam-level)

The urban landscape of Vijayanagara was a masterpiece of strategic planning, dictated by its unique geography. The city was nestled in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River, surrounded by striking granite hills that acted as a natural protective girdle Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.177. Because the region falls within a semi-arid zone, the Rayas (kings) prioritised sophisticated hydraulic engineering. They built massive embankments along streams to create reservoirs, the most famous being the 15th-century Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank not only irrigated nearby fields but was also conducted through a channel to the "royal centre" Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.177. One of the most prominent public works was the Hiriya canal, which drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra to irrigate the valley separating the Sacred Centre from the Urban Core.

A defining feature of the Vijayanagara landscape was its seven-layered fortification. Unlike most medieval cities, these walls did not just protect the palace; they enclosed agricultural lands, gardens, and forests. The Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq noted with amazement that between the first, second, and third walls, there were cultivated fields and houses Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.194. This was a strategic choice to survive long sieges by ensuring food security within the city walls. The construction itself was remarkable—no mortar or cementing agent was used. Instead, wedge-shaped stone blocks were fitted together through gravity and precise masonry, with an inner core of earth and rubble.

Within the Royal Centre stood the Mahanavami Dibba, a massive ritual platform rising 40 feet high from a base of 11,000 square feet Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.180. This structure served as the stage for the 10-day Mahanavami festival (Dussehra), where the king displayed his prestige, military might, and sovereignty. The base is covered in intricate relief carvings depicting marches of horses, elephants, and dancers. However, scholars view the structure as an "enigma" because the physical space atop the platform seems too cramped for the elaborate ceremonies described by contemporary travelers Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.181.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.177; Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.180-181; Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.194

6. Chroniclers of the South: Foreign Travelers and Their Accounts (exam-level)

To understand the Vijayanagara Empire, we must look through the eyes of the global travelers who were drawn to its wealth and splendor. Because much of the capital city was destroyed after the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE), these foreign accounts are indispensable for reconstructing the social and architectural history of Hampi History XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186. These chroniclers didn't just record politics; they captured the 'pulse' of the city—its crowded markets, the status of women, and its unique military engineering.

In the 15th century, the first wave of visitors arrived. Niccolo de Conti, an Italian merchant, gave us early insights into the social customs and festivals of the Sangama dynasty. Soon after, Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador from Persia, arrived during the reign of Deva Raya II. He was astounded by the city's scale, famously noting that the city was built with seven concentric rings of fortifications that enclosed not just the palace, but also agricultural fields and forests Themes in Indian History Part II, Chapter 7, p.176. This indicates a sophisticated strategy for enduring long sieges.

The 16th century brought Portuguese travelers who witnessed the empire at its zenith under Krishnadeva Raya. These accounts provide a 'high-definition' view of the Tuluva dynasty's social fabric:

Traveler	Origin	Key Contribution
Domingo Paes	Portugal	Described the Mahanavami Dibba and compared the city's size and prosperity to Rome.
Fernao Nuniz	Portugal	A horse trader who wrote a detailed history of the empire and noted the presence of women as wrestlers, astrologers, and accountants.
Afanasy Nikitin	Russia	A merchant who highlighted the sharp contrast between the luxury of the nobles and the simple lives of the commoners.

Sources: History XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186; Themes in Indian History Part II (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.176

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the socio-economic and political architecture of medieval India, this question tests your ability to identify primary sources—the international travelogues that allowed historians to reconstruct the grandeur of the South. These travelers were more than just tourists; they documented the urban layout, military strength, and the crucial horse trade that defined the era. By connecting the names of Niccolo de Conti and Abdur Razzaq to the 15th-century timeline you just studied, you are identifying the observers who provided the most vivid descriptions of the Hampi region as documented in THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II.

To arrive at the correct answer, you must match the chronology of these visitors with the ruling dynasties. Conti (Italian) and Razzaq (Persian) visited during the 15th century (Sangama dynasty), while Nuniz (Portuguese) arrived in the 16th century (Tuluva dynasty). This diverse group—spanning Italy, Persia, Russia, and Portugal—all gravitated toward the same geopolitical powerhouse due to its immense wealth and influence. The common thread among these observers is their fascination with the "City of Victory," leading us directly to the (B) Vijayanagara empire.

UPSC frequently uses chronological traps to test your precision. The Empire of Kannauj (associated with Harsha) and the Rashtrakuta empire flourished significantly earlier, between the 7th and 10th centuries, long before these specific travelers documented their journeys. While the Hoysala empire was a cultural predecessor in the same geographic region, it had declined by the mid-14th century, just as the Vijayanagara was rising. Understanding the overlap between the traveler’s era and the empire’s peak is the key to avoiding these distractors, a concept reinforced in Exploring Society: India and Beyond.