Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists : List-I (Author) A. Hobbes B. Rousseau C. Locke Inequality D. Adam Smith List-II (Concept/Book) 1. Natural Law 2. ‘Might is Right1 3. Discourse on 4. The Wealth of Nations Code :

1. The Age of Enlightenment and Modernity (basic)

To understand the modern world, we must first travel back to the 18th century—the Age of Enlightenment. This was a pivotal era where the "light" of reason was used to dispel the "darkness" of superstition and absolute monarchical rule. The foundation of this shift lay in three massive events: the Renaissance (human-centric thinking), geographical discoveries, and the Reformation. Together, these movements moved society away from a world dominated by religious dogma toward one centered on human potential and natural laws History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Modern World: The Age of Reason, p.130.

Modernity is built on the ideas of thinkers known as philosophes. They believed that society could be improved through rationality and empirical evidence. One of the earliest architects of this thought was Thomas Hobbes, who argued that in a "state of nature" (a world without government), power alone dictated order—an idea often summarized as "might is right." To escape this chaos, he proposed a Social Contract where people gave up some rights to a strong ruler for security. However, John Locke took this further, arguing that people are born with Natural Rights—specifically life, liberty, and property—and that the government’s only job is to protect these rights. If a ruler fails, Locke argued, the people have a right to revolt.

As the movement matured, Jean-Jacques Rousseau challenged the very structure of society in his work, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. He explored how private property and societal conventions created moral and political inequality, famously stating that "man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." These ideas provided the intellectual fuel for the French Revolution History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Age of Revolutions, p.157. Meanwhile, the Enlightenment extended into economics through Adam Smith. In his 1776 masterpiece, The Wealth of Nations, Smith argued for free markets and the "invisible hand," laying the groundwork for modern capitalism Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Chapter 1: Introduction, p.4.

Thinker	Core Contribution	Key Perspective
Thomas Hobbes	Social Contract / Leviathan	Strong authority is needed to prevent the chaos of the "state of nature."
John Locke	Natural Law / Rights	Governments must protect inherent rights to life and liberty.
J.J. Rousseau	General Will / Inequality	Societal structures and property are the roots of human inequality.
Adam Smith	Free Market Economics	Markets function best when left to the "invisible hand" of self-interest.

Sources: History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Modern World: The Age of Reason, p.130; History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Age of Revolutions, p.157; Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Chapter 1: Introduction, p.4

2. The Concept of the 'State of Nature' (basic)

To understand why we have governments, laws, and police today, political philosophers often use a fascinating thought experiment called the State of Nature. Imagine stripping away all laws, courts, and social hierarchies. What would be left? This 'State of Nature' describes the hypothetical condition of humanity before the formation of an organized state or society. As noted in Political Theory, Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), Political Theory: An Introduction, p.2, human beings are unique because they possess reason and the ability to reflect on their actions, leading them to ask fundamental questions like: Why do we need government? and How should society be organized?

Different thinkers have vastly different 'previews' of this state, based on their view of human nature. Thomas Hobbes famously viewed the State of Nature as a place of perpetual conflict—a 'war of all against all' where 'might is right' and life is 'nasty, brutish, and short.' In contrast, John Locke believed that even in this state, humans were guided by Natural Law and possessed inherent rights to life, liberty, and property. Later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that humans were originally 'noble savages' who lived in peace, but were eventually corrupted by the invention of private property and societal inequality, a theme he explored in his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality.

This concept isn't just a history lesson; it's the foundation of the Social Contract. If the State of Nature is dangerous or inconvenient, rational individuals will agree to give up some of their absolute freedom to a central authority (the State) in exchange for security and the protection of their rights. Even early thinkers like Niccolo Machiavelli touched upon these roots by analyzing the true qualities of human nature—whether men are generous or miserly—rather than relying on 'imaginary' ideals (Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), Changing Cultural Traditions, p.115).

Philosopher	View of the State of Nature	Key Concept
Thomas Hobbes	Chaos and fear; a war of all against all.	Might is Right
John Locke	Reasonable and peaceful, but lacking an impartial judge.	Natural Rights
Jean-Jacques Rousseau	Initially pure, but ruined by the 'origin of inequality'.	The General Will

Sources: Political Theory, Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), Political Theory: An Introduction, p.2; Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), Changing Cultural Traditions, p.115

3. The Social Contract Theory (intermediate)

At its heart, the Social Contract Theory seeks to answer a fundamental question: Why should we obey the law or follow a government? Before organized societies existed, philosophers imagined a hypothetical 'State of Nature'—a world without laws or central authority. To escape the chaos or limitations of this state, individuals voluntarily entered into a 'contract' with each other or a ruler, trading some of their absolute freedom for the security and order of a civil society. This shift moved humanity from a system where 'might makes right' to one governed by mutual agreement and legal rights. Three major thinkers shaped this theory, each with a different view of human nature and the purpose of the state:

Philosopher	View of Human Nature	Core Argument
Thomas Hobbes	Selfish and competitive.	In a state of nature, life is 'nasty, brutish, and short.' We need an absolute ruler (the Leviathan) to maintain peace through power.
John Locke	Rational and moral.	Individuals have Natural Rights (life, liberty, property). Government exists only to protect these rights; if it fails, the people can revolt. India and the Contemporary World - I, The French Revolution, p.6
Jean-Jacques Rousseau	Naturally good, but corrupted by society.	The 'General Will' of the people is the true sovereign. He famously noted, 'Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains.' History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Age of Revolutions, p.158

These ideas were revolutionary because they challenged the 'Divine Right of Kings'—the belief that monarchs were chosen by God and were above the law. Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, specifically sought to refute this doctrine, arguing instead for a society based on freedom and equal laws India and the Contemporary World - I, The French Revolution, p.6. Rousseau expanded on this in his 1755 work, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, where he explored how societal conventions created moral and political inequalities that the social contract must address.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World - I, The French Revolution, p.6; History, class XII (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Age of Revolutions, p.158

4. Foundations of Classical Economics (intermediate)

The foundations of classical economics were laid during the 18th-century Enlightenment, a period that shifted human thought from blind tradition toward reason and individual liberty. At the heart of this revolution was Adam Smith (1723–1790), a Scottish philosopher now revered as the 'father of modern economics' Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Chapter 6, p.100. Before Smith, wealth was often measured by a nation's stock of gold or its natural resources. Smith challenged this, arguing that the true 'Wealth of Nations' stems from labor, productivity, and the freedom of exchange. He observed that nations with vast natural wealth, like those in parts of Africa or Latin America, could remain poor, while resource-scarce nations could prosper through efficient economic organization Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Chapter 2, p.9. Smith’s most transformative idea was the 'Invisible Hand'. This principle suggests that in a free market, individuals pursuing their own self-interest—the butcher, the brewer, or the baker—unintentionally promote the good of society as a whole. As Smith famously noted, we don't expect our dinner from their 'benevolence' but from their 'regard to their own interest' Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Chapter 1, p.4. This pursuit of self-interest, guided by the price mechanism, leads the market toward a state of equilibrium without the need for central planning Microeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Chapter 4, p.72. While Smith focused on the market, classical thought was also shaped by political philosophers who debated the 'Social Contract.' Thomas Hobbes viewed the 'state of nature' as a chaotic place where 'might is right,' necessitating a strong central authority. John Locke, conversely, argued for 'Natural Law,' positing that individuals have inherent rights to life and liberty that no government can take away. Jean-Jacques Rousseau added a critical lens, exploring the 'Origin of Inequality' and how societal conventions could corrupt human nature. Together, these thinkers provided the political and ethical framework—protecting property and defining individual rights—that allowed classical economics to thrive.

Thinker	Key Concept/Work	Core Philosophy
Adam Smith	The Wealth of Nations	Self-interest drives economic prosperity via the 'Invisible Hand.'
John Locke	Natural Law	Inherent rights to life, liberty, and property.
Thomas Hobbes	Might is Right	Authority is derived from power to prevent social chaos.
J.J. Rousseau	Origin of Inequality	Societal structures and conventions create moral inequality.

Sources: Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Introduction, p.4; Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Open Economy Macroeconomics, p.100; Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), National Income Accounting, p.9; Microeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.), Market Equilibrium, p.72

5. Sovereignty: Absolute vs Popular (intermediate)

To understand governance, we must first understand Sovereignty—the supreme, ultimate authority within a state. Thinkers throughout history have debated where this 'final word' should reside. On one hand, we have Absolute Sovereignty, a concept often associated with Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes argued that in a 'state of nature' where 'might makes right,' individuals must surrender their power to a single, absolute authority (the Leviathan) to ensure order and survival. This idea manifests today in the British system, where Parliamentary Sovereignty means the legislature has no legal restrictions on its power. As the jurist A.V. Dicey noted, the British Parliament can make or unmake any law, and no body can override it Laxmikanth, M. Indian Polity. 7th ed., Parliament, p.263.

In contrast, Popular Sovereignty posits that the ultimate power rests with the people. This was championed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who explored how societal conventions and inequalities arise in his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Rousseau’s 'General Will' suggests that government is only legitimate if it follows the collective will of the citizens. Similarly, John Locke, the father of Natural Law, argued in his Two Treatises of Government that individuals have inherent rights to life and liberty that no sovereign can take away. This lead to the American doctrine of 'limited government', where a written constitution serves as a check against the potential tyranny of a representative body Introduction to the Constitution of India, D. D. Basu (26th ed.), OUTSTANDING FEATURES OF OUR CONSTITUTION, p.43.

India occupies a unique middle ground. While we adopted the British parliamentary model, our founding fathers rejected absolute parliamentary sovereignty. Instead, they created a synthesis between British parliamentary sovereignty and the American principle of judicial supremacy Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth(7th ed.), Salient Features of the Constitution, p.29. In India, the Parliament is supreme, but only within the bounds of the Constitution, which is protected by the courts through judicial review.

Feature	Absolute Sovereignty (British Model)	Popular/Limited Sovereignty (Indian/US Model)
Source of Power	The Parliament/Monarch	The People/The Constitution
Legal Limits	None; Parliament can do anything.	Bound by a Written Constitution and Fundamental Rights.
Judicial Review	Not applicable; Courts cannot void laws.	Courts can declare laws unconstitutional.

Sources: Laxmikanth, M. Indian Polity. 7th ed., McGraw Hill, Parliament, p.263; Introduction to the Constitution of India, D. D. Basu (26th ed.), OUTSTANDING FEATURES OF OUR CONSTITUTION, p.43; Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth(7th ed.), Salient Features of the Constitution, p.29

6. Seminal Works of Western Political Thinkers (exam-level)

The evolution of modern governance and economic systems is rooted in the seminal works of Western political and economic thinkers who challenged the traditional authority of monarchs. One of the most influential figures was John Locke, often called the 'Father of Liberalism.' In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke fundamentally rejected the 'divine right' of kings, arguing instead that government must be based on the consent of the governed and the protection of Natural Laws—inherent rights to life, liberty, and property India and the Contemporary World - I, Class IX NCERT, The French Revolution, p.6. This shift moved the focus from the ruler's power to the individual's inherent rights. Building on these ideas, Jean-Jacques Rousseau explored the complexities of human society in works like The Social Contract and his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Rousseau made a critical distinction between natural inequalities (physical differences like age or health) and socially-produced inequalities (privileges like wealth or status created by society) Political Theory, Class XI NCERT, Equality, p.36. While Thomas Hobbes famously described a 'state of nature' where 'might is right' and life is 'nasty, brutish, and short,' Rousseau argued that man is 'born free' but finds himself 'in chains' due to the corrupting influence of societal conventions History, Class XII Tamilnadu State Board, The Age of Revolutions, p.158. Parallel to these political shifts, the intellectual landscape of economics was transformed by Adam Smith. In his 1776 masterpiece, The Wealth of Nations, Smith laid the foundation for modern classical economics. He argued that when individuals pursue their own self-interest in a free market, they are led by an 'invisible hand' to promote the economic well-being of society as a whole Macroeconomics, Class XII NCERT, Introduction, p.4.

Thinker	Key Work	Core Philosophy
Thomas Hobbes	Leviathan	Authority stems from power; state of nature is chaos ('Might is Right').
John Locke	Two Treatises of Government	Refuted divine right; emphasized Natural Law and individual liberty.
J.J. Rousseau	The Social Contract	Sovereignty resides in the 'General Will'; explored social inequality.
Adam Smith	The Wealth of Nations	Foundational text for free-market economics and wealth creation.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World - I, Class IX NCERT, The French Revolution, p.6; History, Class XII Tamilnadu State Board, The Age of Revolutions, p.158; Political Theory, Class XI NCERT, Equality, p.36; Macroeconomics, Class XII NCERT, Introduction, p.4

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the evolution of political and economic thought, this question serves as a perfect synthesis of your learning. To tackle this, you must connect the Social Contract theorists and Classical Economists you just studied to their specific contributions. The question tests your ability to distinguish between the pessimistic realism of Thomas Hobbes, the liberal foundationalism of John Locke, the egalitarian critique of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the market-defining work of Adam Smith, as referenced in Macroeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.).

As a coach, I recommend the anchor-and-eliminate strategy. Start with Adam Smith (D), whose 1776 masterpiece, The Wealth of Nations (4), is the most recognizable link. Next, identify John Locke (C), the 'Father of Liberalism,' who is inextricably linked to the theory of Natural Law (1). For Jean-Jacques Rousseau (B), recall his specific critique of societal corruption found in his Discourse on Inequality (3). This leaves Thomas Hobbes (A) with 'Might is Right' (2), reflecting his view that in a state of nature, raw power dictates order. Following this reasoning, the only sequence that fits is 2-3-1-4, making Option (B) the correct answer.

UPSC often sets traps by mispairing thinkers who share similar themes. For instance, Options (C) and (D) are designed to confuse you by placing Adam Smith at the start of the sequence, hoping you might second-guess the political pairings. A common pitfall is confusing Locke and Rousseau; while both discuss nature, Locke focused on the legalistic Natural Law, whereas Rousseau focused on Inequality. By focusing on these specific conceptual anchors, you can avoid the distractors and navigate the match-the-following format with precision.