Which one among the following Indian rivers originates in Maharashtra and flows through Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh to meet the Bay of Bengal in Andhra coast ?

1. Introduction to Indian Drainage Systems (basic)

Welcome! To understand the vast network of Indian rivers, we must first look at the drainage system, which is essentially the flow of water through well-defined channels. In India, these systems are primarily dictated by the broad relief features of the subcontinent. We generally classify them into two major groups: the Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers. This classification is based on their mode of origin, nature, and characteristics India Physical Environment, Chapter 3, p.19.

The differences between these two systems are profound. The Himalayan rivers (like the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra) are perennial, meaning they have water throughout the year because they receive it from both rainfall and melting snow. Because they are "younger," they are still actively eroding the mountains, creating deep V-shaped valleys and Gorges. In contrast, the Peninsular drainage system is much older, characterized by broad, shallow valleys and mature rivers that have largely reached their base level of erosion Contemporary India-I, Chapter 3, p.17.

Feature	Himalayan Rivers	Peninsular Rivers
Nature of Flow	Perennial (Rain + Snowmelt)	Seasonal (Dependent on Rain)
Geological Age	Young and active	Older and stable
Course Features	Longer courses, meanders, and deltas	Shorter, shallower courses

An essential concept for the Peninsular system is the Water Divide. For most major Peninsular rivers, the Western Ghats act as this divide. Due to a slight tilting of the Peninsular block toward the southeast during ancient geological upheavals, most major rivers flow from west to east, emptying into the Bay of Bengal India Physical Environment, Chapter 3, p.23. However, exceptions like the Narmada and Tapi flow west through rift valleys (trough faults) caused by the subsidence of the land during the same period the Himalayas were forming.

Sources: India Physical Environment, Drainage System, p.19; Contemporary India-I, Drainage, p.17; India Physical Environment, Drainage System, p.23

2. Characteristics of Peninsular Rivers (basic)

To understand the Peninsular river system, we must first look at its age. These rivers are significantly older than the Himalayan rivers. Because they flow over the stable, hard-rock terrain of the ancient Deccan Plateau, they have reached a stage of maturity. This is visible in their landscape: instead of the deep, narrow gorges found in the Himalayas, Peninsular rivers flow through broad, shallow, and largely-graded valleys INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3: Drainage System, p.23.

A crucial feature of this system is the Western Ghats, which acts as the primary water divide. Running close and parallel to the western coast, these mountains force the majority of major rivers—like the Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, and Kaveri—to flow eastward and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These east-flowing rivers are known for creating extensive deltas at their mouths. In contrast, the Narmada and Tapi are the only major long rivers that flow westward into the Arabian Sea, typically forming estuaries rather than deltas CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3: Drainage, p.21.

One of the most defining functional characteristics is their seasonal regime. Unlike Himalayan rivers which are perennial (fed by both snow-melt and rain), Peninsular rivers are almost entirely dependent on monsoonal rainfall. Consequently, their water levels fluctuate drastically; during the dry season, even the mightiest Peninsular rivers can see their flow reduced to small trickles in their channels Geography of India (Majid Husain), The Drainage System of India, p.22. Generally, these rivers have shorter and shallower courses compared to their northern counterparts CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3: Drainage, p.18.

Feature	Peninsular Rivers	Himalayan Rivers
Nature of Flow	Seasonal (Ephemeral)	Perennial
Valley Shape	Broad and Shallow	Deep V-Shaped Gorges
Geological Age	Old/Mature	Young/Youthful

Sources: INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3: Drainage System, p.23; CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3: Drainage, p.18, 21; Geography of India (Majid Husain), The Drainage System of India, p.22

3. Physiography of the Deccan Plateau (intermediate)

The Deccan Plateau is the heart of the Peninsular Block, a massive triangular landmass lying south of the Narmada River. To master Indian geography, you must first understand its age: this region is composed of some of the oldest rocks on Earth, primarily ancient gneisses and granites that date back over 3,600 million years Geography of India, Physiography, p.48. Unlike the Himalayas, which are young and still rising, the Deccan Plateau is a stable shield that has remained largely unaffected by mountain-building forces for eons, though it does experience occasional seismic activity along fault lines, such as the 1967 Koyna earthquake Geography of India, Contemporary Issues, p.9.

The most critical feature for a geography student is the plateau's topographic tilt. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and gently slopes toward the east. This is why the Western Ghats (Sahyadris) act as a primary water divide INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Drainage System, p.19. Even though rivers like the Godavari and Krishna originate very close to the western coast, this eastward tilt forces them to travel across the entire breadth of the peninsula to reach the Bay of Bengal. This results in the characteristic dendritic (tree-like) drainage patterns we see across the plateau Geography of India, The Drainage System of India, p.3.

Physiographically, the plateau is bounded by the Satpura and Vindhya ranges to the north, the Western Ghats to the west, and the Eastern Ghats to the east. This structural "box" dictates the movement of water. While most of the drainage (77%) flows toward the Bay of Bengal, the northern margins of the plateau are marked by fault valleys, which allow the Narmada and Tapi to defy the general tilt and flow westward into the Arabian Sea INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Structure and Physiography, p.8.

Feature	Western Margin (Western Ghats)	Eastern Margin (Eastern Ghats)
Elevation	Higher, continuous wall-like range.	Lower, discontinuous, and eroded.
Role in Drainage	Acts as the main water divide for peninsular rivers.	Broken through by major rivers forming deltas.
River Influence	Source region for major east-flowing rivers.	End-point (mouth) for major east-flowing rivers.

Sources: INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Structure and Physiography, p.8; Geography of India, Physiography, p.48; INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Drainage System, p.19; Geography of India, Contemporary Issues, p.9

4. Inter-State River Water Disputes (exam-level)

In a federal structure like India, rivers often flow across several states, making water a shared and sensitive resource. While 'Water' is primarily a State subject, the regulation and development of inter-state rivers and river valleys fall under the Union List. This duality often leads to conflicts when upstream states divert water for irrigation or power, potentially depriving downstream states. To manage these friction points, the Indian Constitution provides a specific framework under Article 262.

Article 262 is unique because it grants Parliament the power to provide for the adjudication of any dispute relating to the use, distribution, or control of inter-state waters. Crucially, it also allows Parliament to enact laws that exclude the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court or any other court in these matters Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth, Inter-State Relations, p.167. Under this constitutional mandate, two major laws were enacted in 1956:

• River Boards Act (1956): Aimed at the regulation and development of inter-state rivers. These boards are advisory in nature.
• Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (1956): This allows the Central Government to set up an ad hoc Tribunal for the adjudication of a dispute if a request is received from a state government and negotiations fail Geography of India, Majid Husain, The Drainage System of India, p.37.

Over the decades, several tribunals have been established to resolve complex sharing formulas. For instance, the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal involves Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, while the Godavari Tribunal encompasses a larger group including Madhya Pradesh and Odisha Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth, Inter-State Relations, p.168. These tribunals consist of sitting judges of the Supreme Court or High Courts, and their decisions, once published, carry the force of a decree of the Supreme Court.

Tribunal Name	States Involved	Setup Year
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal	Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh	1969
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal	Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra	1969
Kaveri Water Disputes Tribunal	Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry	1990

Sources: Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth, Inter-State Relations, p.167-168; Geography of India, Majid Husain, The Drainage System of India, p.37

5. Major Hydro-Electric and Irrigation Projects (exam-level)

The Krishna River system is a powerhouse of peninsular India, serving as the second-largest east-flowing river after the Godavari. It originates in the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra and journeys approximately 1,400 km through the Deccan Plateau Geography of India, Majid Husain, The Drainage System of India, p.21. As it traverses the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh, it supports massive agricultural and industrial belts before forming a unique "bird-foot" delta as it enters the Bay of Bengal India Physical Environment, Geography Class XI, River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage, p.23. To harness this massive flow, several multi-purpose projects have been established. The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, built across the Krishna, is one of the most significant river valley projects in India Contemporary India-I, Geography Class IX, Drainage, p.25. In the upstream region of Karnataka, the Upper Krishna Project features the Almatti Dam (now named the Lal Bahadur Shastri Dam), which plays a critical role in irrigation and power generation A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, After Nehru, p.660. Further downstream, the river passes through deep gorges in the Srisailam Hills, where the Srisailam Project is located. Beyond the Krishna, India’s hydro-electric history is marked by milestones like the Shivasamudram Dam (1902) on the Kaveri river, which was pioneering for its time, primarily supplying electricity to the Kolar Gold Mines Geography of India, Majid Husain, Energy Resources, p.23. In the north, the Rihand Project in Uttar Pradesh—constructed on the Rihand river, a tributary of the Son—creates a massive reservoir known as Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar, which stands as the largest multi-purpose project in the state Geography of India, Majid Husain, Energy Resources, p.22.

Project	River	Key Significance
Nagarjuna Sagar	Krishna	Major multi-purpose project in Telangana/Andhra Pradesh.
Almatti (LBS Dam)	Krishna	Part of the Upper Krishna Project in Karnataka.
Rana Pratap Sagar	Chambal	Irrigation and flood control in Rajasthan.
Rihand	Rihand (Son trib.)	Forms Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar, India's largest artificial lake.

Sources: Geography of India, Majid Husain, The Drainage System of India, p.21; India Physical Environment, Geography Class XI, River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage, p.23; Contemporary India-I, Geography Class IX, Drainage, p.25; A Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum, After Nehru, p.660; Geography of India, Majid Husain, Energy Resources, p.22-23

6. The Godavari River Basin: 'Dakshin Ganga' (intermediate)

Often referred to as the 'Dakshin Ganga' (Ganges of the South) or the Vriddha Ganga (Old Ganges), the Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system in India. It earns this title not just due to its impressive length of approximately 1,500 km, but also because of its immense cultural and geographical significance CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3: Drainage, p.21. The river originates from the slopes of the Western Ghats at the Trimbak Plateau in the Nashik district of Maharashtra. From here, it flows eastwards across the Deccan Plateau, draining a massive basin that covers nearly 10% of India's total area, with about 50% of this basin lying within the state of Maharashtra alone Geography of India (Majid Husain), The Drainage System of India, p.21.

The Godavari is fed by a complex network of tributaries. Its left-bank tributaries are generally more numerous and larger than those on the right. A unique feature of this system is the Pranhita, which is actually the combined flow of three major rivers: the Wardha, the Penganga, and the Wainganga INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3: Drainage System, p.24. On the right bank, the Manjra is the most significant tributary, providing vital water to the drier regions of the plateau.

Bank	Principal Tributaries
Left Bank	Purna, Wardha, Penganga, Wainganga (Pranhita), Indravati, Sabari
Right Bank	Manjra, Pravara, Maner

In its lower reaches, the river carves a spectacular, picturesque gorge south of Polavaram before entering the plains. After passing Rajahmundry, the Godavari splits into several distributaries, forming a wide and fertile delta before finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3: Drainage System, p.24. Unlike the snow-fed Himalayan rivers, the Godavari is rain-fed, meaning its volume fluctuates significantly between the monsoon and the dry summer months.

Sources: CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3: Drainage, p.21; Geography of India (Majid Husain), The Drainage System of India, p.21; INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3: Drainage System, p.24

7. The Krishna River System: Source and Course (exam-level)

The Krishna River, the second-largest east-flowing peninsular river in India, begins its journey in the vertical faces of the Western Ghats (Sahyadri) at an elevation of about 1,337 metres near Mahabaleshwar in the Satara district of Maharashtra INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3, p.24. From this high-altitude spring, it traverses approximately 1,400 km across the Deccan Plateau before meeting the Bay of Bengal CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3, p.22.

The river's course is a fascinating study of peninsular geography. After leaving Maharashtra, it enters Karnataka and then moves through the semi-arid regions of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Interestingly, while it originates in Maharashtra, the river's drainage basin is not equally shared. A significant majority of its catchment area serves the agrarian needs of Karnataka.

State(s)	Share of Catchment Area
Karnataka	44%
Andhra Pradesh & Telangana	29%
Maharashtra	27%

INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3, p.24

As the river approaches the eastern coast, it passes through the Srisailam Hills and forms a deep gorge. Below Vijayawada, the Krishna slows down and branches out to form its characteristic bird-foot delta (resembling the Mississippi delta) before emptying into the Bay of Bengal Geography of India (Majid Husain), The Drainage System of India, p.21. Along its path, it has been harnessed for massive irrigation and power projects, most notably the Nagarjuna-Sagar Reservoir, which is a vital resource for both Seemandhra and Telangana Environment and Ecology (Majid Hussain), Distribution of World Natural Resources, p.22.

Sources: INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Chapter 3: Drainage System, p.24; CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I, Chapter 3: Drainage, p.22; Geography of India (Majid Husain), The Drainage System of India, p.21; Environment and Ecology (Majid Hussain), Distribution of World Natural Resources, p.22

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the individual components of the Peninsular Drainage System, this question serves as the perfect exercise in spatial synthesis. It requires you to layer three distinct layers of knowledge: the point of origin, the inter-state transit, and the final destination. To solve this effectively, you must recall the 'River Profile' building blocks we discussed. While many rivers flow toward the East, the specific requirement of originating in Maharashtra while also traversing Karnataka acts as a narrow filter that only one major river can pass through.

Walking through the reasoning, we start with the origin. The Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. As highlighted in INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, Geography Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), its 1,400 km journey is unique because it dips southward into Karnataka before turning east towards the Andhra Pradesh coast. This makes (C) Krishna the only choice that satisfies all three geographical constraints mentioned in the stem. Always look for that 'intermediate state' (Karnataka, in this case) to distinguish between the two giants of the Deccan—the Krishna and the Godavari.

UPSC often uses 'neighboring' rivers as traps to test your precision. The Godavari is the primary distractor here; although it also originates in Maharashtra (Nashik), it primarily drains through Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, skipping the Karnataka detour. Cauvery is a trap for students who confuse the middle and lower course, as it originates in Karnataka (Brahmagiri), not Maharashtra. Finally, Mahanadi is easily ruled out as its origin lies in Chhattisgarh. By systematically eliminating based on the origin state first, and then the flow path, you arrive securely at the correct answer (C).