'A Forgotten Empire', written by the renowned historian Robert Sewell is about which one of the following Empires ?

1. Rise of the Vijayanagar Empire (1336–1646) (basic)

To understand the rise of the Vijayanagar Empire, we must look at the 14th-century landscape of South India—a period of intense political flux. As the traditional powers like the Hoysalas and Kakatiyas weakened under the pressure of the Delhi Sultanate's southern expeditions, a power vacuum emerged. It was in 1336 that two brothers, Harihara and Bukka (the sons of Sangama), laid the foundation of what would become a 'City of Victory' (Vijayanagara) on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. While legends suggest they were once in the service of the Tughluqs and were later inspired by the sage Vidyaranya to re-establish a Hindu kingdom, contemporary inscriptions suggest they were originally associated with the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180.

The empire was not a monolithic block of time but was ruled by four distinct dynasties over three centuries. This progression is vital for your UPSC preparation as it shows how power shifted from the founding family to military commanders and eventually to regional elites. The first dynasty, the Sangama, focused on consolidation and initial expansion against the Bahmani Sultanate. They were eventually supplanted by the Saluvas (military commanders), followed by the Tuluvas—the dynasty of the legendary Krishnadevaraya—and finally the Aravidu dynasty which presided over the empire's decline after the pivotal Battle of Talikota in 1565 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173.

Historically, our modern understanding of this empire was largely 'rediscovered' in the 19th century by the British official Robert Sewell. His seminal work, A Forgotten Empire, reconstructed the kingdom's glory using local inscriptions and the vivid travelogues of foreign visitors like Paes and Nuniz. Geographically, the empire's survival depended on controlling fertile zones like the Raichur Doab (the land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers), which led to constant friction with the Deccan Sultans to the north and the Gajapatis of Orissa to the east THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.171.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.171; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173

2. The Four Dynasties and Political Zenith (intermediate)

The Vijayanagara Empire was not ruled by a single family but by a succession of four distinct dynasties over three centuries. This political journey began in 1336 when the Sangama brothers, Harihara and Bukka, established the kingdom. While they initially served the Hoysalas or Kakatiyas, they were inspired by the sage Vidyaranya to build a sovereign Hindu state in the south History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12, p.180, 187. The history of the empire is often categorized by the shift of power between these four lineages, often driven by military necessity or internal coups. The Tuluva Dynasty represents the golden age of Vijayanagara. Under Krishnadevaraya, the empire achieved its maximum territorial and cultural reach. He successfully acquired the fertile Raichur Doab (the land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers) in 1512, subdued the Gajapatis of Orissa by 1514, and dealt a crushing blow to the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, NCERT Class XII (2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173. However, this peak was followed by a sharp decline after the Battle of Talikota (1565), where a coalition of Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara forces, leading to the eventual rise of the Aravidu dynasty in a much-diminished state History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12, p.182. Much of what we know today about this "forgotten" history is thanks to 19th-century historiography. The British official Robert Sewell played a pivotal role with his work, A Forgotten Empire. By piecing together local inscriptions and the vivid travelogues of foreigners like Paes and Nuniz, Sewell reconstructed the narrative of an empire that had largely faded from the public consciousness, cementing the legacy of Krishnadevaraya as one of India’s most formidable monarchs.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180, 182, 187; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, NCERT Class XII (2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.173

3. Administrative Structures: The Amara-Nayaka System (exam-level)

The Amara-Nayaka system was perhaps the most significant political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. To understand it from first principles, think of it as a system of delegated military and administrative authority. The empire was vast, and the Rayas (kings) needed a way to maintain a massive army without the logistical nightmare of paying every soldier directly from the central treasury. To solve this, they created a class of military chiefs known as Nayakas, who were assigned specific territories called amaram Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175.

These Nayakas, who typically spoke Telugu or Kannada, were not just soldiers; they were territorial administrators. In exchange for the land granted to them, they had two primary obligations: first, they had to maintain a stipulated contingent of horses, elephants, and foot soldiers for the King's use during wars. Second, they were required to pay an annual tribute to the central treasury and personally attend the royal court at least once a year to show their loyalty. This structure bears a striking resemblance to the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate, from which many of its features were likely derived Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175.

Feature	Amara-Nayaka System	Iqta System (Sultanate)
Primary Goal	Military readiness and local revenue collection.	Salary payment and administrative control.
Relationship	Nayakas often moved with peasants to settle new lands.	Iqtadars were primarily urban-based administrators.
Continuity	Led to the rise of independent 'Nayak' kingdoms later.	Transfers were frequent to prevent local power bases.

The Kings maintained control over these powerful chiefs through the power of transfer. By moving a Nayaka from one region to another, the King prevented them from building a local power base that could challenge the throne. However, as the central authority of the Vijayanagara Empire weakened (especially after the Battle of Talikota), many of these Nayakas asserted their independence, eventually forming the famous Nayaka Kingdoms of Madurai, Tanjore, and Gingee History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186

4. Contemporary Rivals: The Bahmani Sultanate (intermediate)

To truly understand the political survival and military architecture of the Vijayanagara Empire, one must understand its shadow: the Bahmani Sultanate. Founded in 1347 by Alauddin Bahman Shah, this Sultanate was the primary northern rival of Vijayanagara for over two centuries. While Vijayanagara was consolidating the south, the Bahmani rulers were busy organizing the Deccan into four administrative units called tarafs, each governed by a powerful noble History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.176. This administrative efficiency allowed them to maintain a standing army that frequently clashed with the Rayas of Vijayanagara.

The core of their rivalry was not merely ideological, but deeply economic and geographical. Both empires fought "endemic wars" over the control of the Raichur Doab — the incredibly fertile land nestled between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. Beyond agriculture, the conflict was fueled by the desire to control the lucrative horse trade and the collection of tributes from smaller local chieftains History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.181. This constant state of war exhausted both treasuries but also led to significant innovations in fort architecture and artillery.

As the Bahmani Sultanate began to weaken due to internal strife among its nobles, it eventually fractured into five independent successor states known as the Deccan Sultanates. These five entities — Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Golkonda, and Bidar — often fought amongst themselves. However, their shared rivalry with Vijayanagara remained a constant. In 1565, several of these Sultanates put aside their differences to form a rare coalition, leading to the decisive Battle of Talikota (also known as Rakshashi-Tangadi), which effectively ended the golden age of Vijayanagara History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.179.

Sultanate	Ruling Dynasty
Bijapur	Adil Shahis
Golkonda	Qutb Shahis
Ahmadnagar	Nizam Shahis
Berar	Imad Shahis
Bidar	Barid Shahis

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.176, 179, 181, 187, 209

5. Eyewitness Accounts: Foreign Travelers (exam-level)

To understand the Vijayanagara Empire, we must look beyond local inscriptions and literature. Much of what we know today about the splendor of Hampi comes from the chronicles of foreign travelers who visited the city during its golden age. For centuries, this history was largely lost to the public until the historian Robert Sewell published his seminal work, A Forgotten Empire, in 1900. Sewell, a British official, painstakingly reconstructed the empire’s narrative by translating and synthesizing the accounts of Portuguese travelers like Paes and Nuniz History, Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.187. These eyewitness accounts provide a vivid, 'outsider' perspective on the political, social, and economic life of the time.

The travelers came from diverse backgrounds—Persia, Italy, and Portugal—each focusing on different aspects of the empire. For instance, the Italian Nicolo Conti and the Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited in the 15th century and left behind detailed descriptions of the city’s massive scale and its unique architectural layout History, Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186. Razzaq was particularly impressed by the seven layers of fortifications that protected not just the palace, but also agricultural lands and markets, ensuring the city could withstand long sieges. Later, during the peak of the empire under Krishnadevaraya, the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes described Vijayanagara as being 'as large as Rome,' filled with groves, fruit trees, and various conduits of water.

These accounts are not just travelogues; they are vital historical tools that allow us to visualize the ruins of Hampi as they once stood before the catastrophic Battle of Talikota in 1565 History, Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186. While local sources might focus on religious merit or royal genealogy, these travelers documented the mundane and the magnificent: the price of goods in the markets, the status of women (including female wrestlers and astrologers), and the sheer variety of gemstones traded on the streets. Their writings serve as a bridge, connecting the silent stones of Hampi to a once-vibrant, living civilization.

Traveler	Origin	Reign of King	Key Observation
Nicolo Conti	Italy	Devaraya I	Detailed accounts of Indian festivals and social customs.
Abdur Razzaq	Persia	Devaraya II	Famous description of the seven concentric circles of city walls.
Domingo Paes	Portugal	Krishnadevaraya	Compared the city's size to Rome; detailed the Mahanavami Dibba.
Fernao Nuniz	Portugal	Achyuta Deva Raya	Chronicles of the founding of the empire and social history.

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.186-187

6. Reconstructing History: Robert Sewell's Contribution (exam-level)

For centuries, the magnificent ruins of Hampi stood as silent witnesses to a past that had largely slipped from the collective memory of modern India. This changed significantly at the turn of the 20th century due to the efforts of Robert Sewell, a British official in the Madras Presidency. His 1900 publication, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A Contribution to the History of India, is considered a watershed moment in Indian historiography. Before Sewell, the Vijayanagara Empire was often treated as a peripheral footnote; his work effectively "re-discovered" the empire for a global audience, detailing its rise in 1336 under the Sangama brothers, Harihara and Bukka, and its peak under the Tuluva dynasty ruler, Krishnadevaraya History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 187.

Sewell’s brilliance lay in his methodology. He did not rely on myth or second-hand accounts. Instead, he meticulously synthesized two primary types of evidence:

• Epigraphical Evidence: He utilized thousands of local inscriptions found on temple walls and copper plates, which provided concrete dates, names of kings, and administrative details.
• Foreign Accounts: Most famously, Sewell translated and included the chronicles of Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz. These accounts offered vivid, eye-witness descriptions of the empire's wealth, the grandeur of the Mahanavami festival, and the daily life of the city History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 187.

By connecting these diverse sources, Sewell was able to construct a chronological narrative of the empire's four major dynasties—Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu—leading up to the empire's dramatic decline following the Battle of Talikota in 1565 History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p. 180. His work remains a foundational milestone because it shifted the historical focus toward South Indian polity and military strategy, highlighting the empire's role as a major power that balanced the political landscape of medieval India.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180, 187

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

You have just mastered the intricate details of the Vijayanagar Empire, from its foundation by the Sangama brothers to the architectural marvels of Hampi. This question tests your ability to connect those historical facts with historiography—the study of how that history was actually recorded and rediscovered. Robert Sewell’s 1900 masterpiece, 'A Forgotten Empire', is the definitive text that rescued this kingdom from obscurity. It serves as the bridge between the archaeological ruins found in the Deccan and the descriptive chronicles of foreign travelers like Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, which you encountered during your concept lessons.

To arrive at the correct answer, (C) Vijayanagar Empire, think about the specific context of the term "Forgotten." Following the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Talikota in 1565, the empire's capital was sacked and eventually abandoned, fading from the mainstream historical narrative for centuries. Sewell, a British official, utilized local inscriptions and primary sources to reconstruct the glory of rulers like Krishnadevaraya. As highlighted in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), this work is considered a foundational milestone in Indian historiography for medieval South India.

UPSC often includes high-profile distractors like the Mughal Empire or Mauryan Empire to test your precision. However, the Mughals were never truly "forgotten" as they remained the focus of Persian chronicles and early British administrative records. Similarly, the Kushan and Mauryan empires are Ancient dynasties whose rediscovery is usually credited to figures like James Prinsep (who deciphered Ashokan edicts). By recognizing that Sewell’s work specifically focused on the 14th to 16th-century South Indian landscape, you can confidently bypass these traps.