What was the main reason for the greatly worsened condition of the Peasants in the late 1920s and early 1930s which led to Peasants Movements in thePunjab,Gujaratand Uttar Pradesh? Time

1. Evolution of Peasant Movements (1900–1947) (basic)

To understand the evolution of peasant movements in the first half of the 20th century, we must first recognize a fundamental shift: peasant struggles ceased to be isolated, local protests and began to merge with the broader **National Freedom Movement**. In the early years (1917–1918), leaders like Mahatma Gandhi used peasant grievances in Champaran and Kheda as laboratories for Satyagraha, forever linking agrarian distress with the struggle against colonial rule Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.578. Unlike 19th-century revolts, these 20th-century movements were increasingly characterized by a strong awareness of **legal rights** and the use of organized political platforms to demand economic relief.

The most critical turning point during this period was the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s. This global economic catastrophe caused a dramatic collapse in agricultural prices (crashing nearly 50% in many regions). While the peasants' income vanished, their fixed obligations — such as land revenue to the government and rent to the zamindars — remained unchanged. This created an impossible situation where the real burden of debt multiplied, acting as a massive catalyst for intensified movements like the No-Rent campaigns in Uttar Pradesh and the Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat.

As the movement matured, it became institutionalized through formal organizations. By the 1930s, the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was established, becoming the largest agrarian group in the country M. Laxmikanth, Indian Polity, Pressure Groups, p.602. In regions like Malabar, the Congress Socialist Party mobilized peasants into Karshak Sanghams (peasant unions), using methods like jathas (marches) to confront landlords directly Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.581. While these movements often targeted immediate 'class enemies' like zamindars and moneylenders rather than the colonial state itself, they were essential in politicizing the rural masses.

Sources: Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.577-581; M. Laxmikanth, Indian Polity, Pressure Groups, p.602

2. Structural Issues: Land Revenue and Indebtedness (basic)

To understand why peasant movements became so frequent and intense in colonial India, we must first look at the structural trap created by British land policies. Before the British, Indian rulers generally collected a portion of the actual crop produced. If the crop failed, the revenue was usually waived. However, the British transformed land revenue from a tax on produce into a fixed rent on the land itself. This meant that the state demanded payment regardless of whether the land was cultivated or if the harvest was destroyed by drought or floods History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.293.

The British implemented three primary systems to extract this revenue, each creating its own set of problems for the peasantry:

System	Key Feature	Impact on Peasant
Zamindari (1793)	Revenue collectors were turned into "landowners."	Peasants became tenants-at-will, facing high rents and arbitrary evictions Geography of India, Majid Husain, Agriculture, p.25.
Ryotwari (1820)	Direct settlement between the State and the individual cultivator (Ryot).	The State became a "giant zamindar," often demanding excessively high revenue that left the peasant with no surplus Modern India, Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.), p.105.
Mahalwari (1833)	Revenue settled with the village community (Mahal).	Co-sharers were collectively responsible; if one failed, the others bore the burden.

This rigid revenue demand forced peasants into a cycle of indebtedness. To avoid losing their land for non-payment, peasants borrowed money from local moneylenders. These lenders charged exorbitant interest rates and were backed by the colonial judicial system, which prioritized contract enforcement over social equity. Over time, the peasant became a de facto serf to the moneylender, working only to pay off never-ending interest Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.574.

The situation reached a breaking point during the Great Depression of the late 1920s. Agricultural prices collapsed, but the fixed revenue and debt obligations did not. A peasant who sold a sack of grain for 10 rupees in 1926 might only get 3 rupees for it in 1931. This economic shock acted as a catalyst, turning long-standing structural grievances into active, organized peasant resistance across India Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.579.

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Early Resistance to British Rule, p.293; Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.), Agriculture, p.25; Modern India ,Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.), The Structure of the Government and the Economic Policies of the British Empire in India, 1757—1857, p.105; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.574; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM., Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.579

3. The Rise of Kisan Sabhas and Organized Protest (intermediate)

The early 20th century marked a fundamental shift in agrarian resistance: the transition from spontaneous, localized outbursts to institutionalized, organized protest. This began in the United Provinces (UP) where the UP Kisan Sabha was established in 1918, supported by leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya. By 1920, the movement deepened in Awadh under the leadership of Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi who organized peasants against high rents and bedakhali (eviction). Unlike earlier movements, these Sabhas used sophisticated social tactics, such as nai-dhobi bandhs, where barbers and washermen refused services to oppressive landlords to exert social pressure NCERT Class X, Nationalism in India, p.35. The Awadh Kisan Sabha, formed in 1920 with the involvement of Jawaharlal Nehru, successfully integrated rural grievances with the broader Non-Cooperation Movement, asking peasants to refuse unpaid labor (begar) and settle disputes through village panchayats Spectrum, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.578.

The movement reached its organizational zenith in the 1930s, driven by the catastrophic impact of the Great Depression. As global agricultural prices collapsed after 1930, peasants found it impossible to pay fixed land revenues or debts. This economic distress catalyzed the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) in Lucknow in 1936. With Swami Sahjanand Saraswati as President and N.G. Ranga as General Secretary, the AIKS became a formidable political lobby. It issued a 'Kisan Manifesto' that directly influenced the Congress Party’s agrarian policy during the 1937 provincial elections, signaling that the peasantry was no longer just a backdrop to the freedom struggle but a core constituent of the national movement Spectrum, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.581.

While the AIKS provided a national umbrella, the movement drew strength from radical regional pockets. In Bihar, Jadunandan Sharma activated the movement in Gaya, while in Andhra, Duggirala Balaramakrishnaya led no-revenue campaigns and used cultural tools like the Gandhi Gita to mobilize the masses Spectrum, After Nehru..., p.813. Even more radical was the Eka Movement (Unity Movement) in Northern UP, led by Madari Pasi. This movement was unique because its leadership came from lower castes and small zamindars, focusing on the refusal to pay more than the recorded rent, though it was eventually suppressed by the authorities by 1922 Spectrum, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.579.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II. History-Class X. NCERT, Nationalism in India, p.35; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.578-581; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), After Nehru..., p.813

4. Civil Disobedience and the 'No-Rent' Campaigns (intermediate)

To understand the 'No-Rent' campaigns of the 1930s, we must first look at the global economic climate. The Great Depression that began in 1929 was the primary catalyst. For the Indian peasant, this wasn't just a financial news story; it was a catastrophe. Prices of primary agricultural commodities collapsed, often by 50% or more. However, while the peasants' income vanished, the fixed land revenue demanded by the British and the fixed rents demanded by landlords remained unchanged. This created a desperate situation where the real burden of debt and tax effectively doubled overnight Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 31, p. 579.

When Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) in 1930 with the Salt March, the peasantry saw an opportunity to link their economic survival to the national struggle for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence). This movement differed fundamentally from the earlier Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) because it encouraged the active violation of laws from the very beginning, rather than just withdrawing cooperation from the state Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 15, p. 380.

Feature	Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)	Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34)
Primary Objective	Redressal of specific wrongs & vague Swaraj	Complete Independence (Purna Swaraj)
Nature of Action	Non-cooperation with British institutions	Direct violation of colonial laws (e.g., Salt Law)
Peasant Focus	Social boycott of officials	No-Tax and No-Rent campaigns

However, the movement faced internal class tensions. Rich peasants, such as the Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh, were the most enthusiastic supporters of 'No-Tax' campaigns (refusing to pay government revenue) because their commercial crop profits had dried up NCERT Class X, Nationalism in India, p. 41. In contrast, poor peasants and tenants were more interested in 'No-Rent' campaigns directed against their landlords. This put the Indian National Congress in a delicate position. To maintain a united nationalist front, the Congress leadership—often dependent on the support of landed classes—was frequently hesitant to endorse radical 'No-Rent' strikes, leading to an uncertain relationship between the party and the rural poor NCERT Class X, Nationalism in India, p. 41.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 31: Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.579; A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 15: Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences, p.380; Nationalism in India (NCERT Class X), Nationalism in India, p.41; History, Class XII (Tamil Nadu State Board), Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles, p.67

5. The Great Depression: Impact on Indian Agriculture (exam-level)

To understand the intensity of peasant movements in the 1930s, we must first understand the Great Depression—a global economic cataclysm that began around 1929. While we often associate it with breadlines in New York, its impact on the Indian countryside was arguably more devastating. By the early 20th century, India was deeply integrated into the global economy as an exporter of raw materials. When the international market crashed, the tremors were felt in every Indian village India and the Contemporary World – II. NCERT, The Making of a Global World, p.72.

The primary mechanism of distress was a catastrophic collapse in commodity prices. Between 1928 and 1934, agricultural prices in India plunged—wheat prices fell by nearly 50%, and raw jute prices crashed by more than 60% India and the Contemporary World – II. NCERT, The Making of a Global World, p.73. For a peasant, this meant that the same amount of hard labor now yielded less than half the previous income. However, the Colonial Government refused to reduce land revenue demands, creating a "scissors effect" where income vanished but fixed costs remained sky-high. This forced peasants to exhaust their savings, sell their gold and silver ornaments, and fall deeper into the clutches of moneylenders.

Stakeholder	Impact of the Depression	Resulting Action
Jute Growers (Bengal)	Export market for gunny bags collapsed; raw jute prices fell over 60%.	Increased indebtedness and extreme poverty.
Wheat Farmers (UP/Punjab)	Prices halved; revenue remained fixed.	Led to 'No-Rent' campaigns and agrarian turmoil.
Colonial Govt	Maintained high revenue to meet its own colonial obligations.	Lost the remaining 'moral' legitimacy among the peasantry.

This economic misery acted as a massive catalyst for political radicalization. The 1930s witnessed the emergence of the Kisan Sabhas, which moved beyond simple grievances to demand the total abolition of the Zamindari system and debt relief History, Class XII (Tamilnadu State Board), Period of Radicalism, p.68. Interestingly, while the peasantry suffered, the Indian industrial sector saw a silver lining: they benefited from cheaper labor and lower land prices, and the weakening of ties with British capital allowed some domestic industries to record growth during this period.

Sources: India and the Contemporary World – II. NCERT, The Making of a Global World, p.71-73; History, Class XII (Tamilnadu State Board), Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles, p.68; A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum), Peasant Movements, p.579

6. Regional Unrest: Punjab, Gujarat, and UP (1928–1932) (exam-level)

To understand the regional unrest between 1928 and 1932, we must look at the global economic earthquake that triggered it: the Great Depression. While Indian peasants had long suffered under high rents and landlord oppression, the collapse of agricultural prices beginning in 1926 (and accelerating after 1930) made their situation untenable. Farmers saw the value of their crops vanish, yet the British government refused to lower fixed land revenue demands. This created a powder keg of resentment that exploded across Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab.

In Gujarat, the most iconic struggle was the Bardoli Satyagraha (1928). It began when authorities hiked land revenue by 30% in the Surat district. Vallabhbhai Patel was called to lead the movement, organizing a disciplined non-payment of taxes. The peasants resolved not to pay a single paisa until an independent tribunal was appointed. The movement was so successful and well-organized that the women of Bardoli conferred the title 'Sardar' upon Patel Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 31, p. 580. Eventually, the government scaled back the revenue hike significantly, marking a massive victory for non-violent resistance NCERT Class X, Nationalism in India, p.35.

In the United Provinces (UP), the unrest took the form of 'No-Rent' campaigns. Peasants here were fighting a dual battle: against the British revenue collectors and the taluqdars (big landlords) who imposed high rents, nazrana (illegal levies), and bedakhali (eviction) Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 31, p. 578. The UP Kisan Sabha and the Congress worked together during the Civil Disobedience Movement to encourage tenants to stop paying rent, linking local economic grievances with the national demand for independence Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 15, p. 347.

Region	Primary Grievances	Key Organizations/Leaders
Gujarat (Bardoli)	30% Revenue Hike	Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
United Provinces	High rents, evictions (bedakhali), and debt	UP Kisan Sabha, Congress leaders
Punjab	Water rates (canal colonies) and revenue resettlement	Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Kirti Kisan Party

In Punjab, the agitation focused on the canal colonies of Multan and Montgomery. Peasants were angry over high water rates and the feudal levies demanded by private contractors. Organizations like the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha and the Kirti Kisan Party mobilized the peasantry, often targeting the pro-British Unionist Ministry dominated by large landlords Rajiv Ahir, A Brief History of Modern India, Chapter 31, p. 582.

Sources: A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.580; NCERT Class X, Nationalism in India, Nationalism in India, p.35; A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.578; A Brief History of Modern India, Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces, p.347; A Brief History of Modern India, Peasant Movements 1857-1947, p.582

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the building blocks of agrarian distress and the timeline of the Great Depression, you can see how they converge in this question. The late 1920s and early 1930s represent a specific window in history where global economic forces dictated local political unrest. You've learned that while the British revenue system was always rigid, the sudden external shock of the global economic crash acted as a catalyst, turning simmering discontent into the widespread Peasant Movements seen in Punjab, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh.

To arrive at the correct answer, (D) Fall in the prices of primary commodities, you must focus on the timing and the scale of the crisis. Between 1929 and 1934, agricultural prices in India plummeted by nearly 50%, yet the British government refused to provide proportional remissions in land revenue. As you learned in the context of the Bardoli Satyagraha and the No-Rent campaigns in UP, the peasants' income vanished while their fixed obligations—taxes and debts—remained the same. This economic squeeze is what pushed the peasantry into the arms of the national movement during the Civil Disobedience era.

UPSC often uses perennial issues as distractors to test your precision. While Oppression of the landlords (B) and Rent regulations (C) were persistent grievances, they were chronic problems that existed long before and after this period. They do not explain the sudden, synchronized intensification of movements across different provinces in the early 1930s. Similarly, a new settlement (A) might cause local anger, but the primary driver for this specific historical juncture was the catastrophic price collapse described in A Brief History of Modern India (Spectrum) by Rajiv Ahir.