When Hari Har and Bukka set up a principality in the South India, which later became Vijayanagar Empire, who was the Delhi Sultan?

1. The Tughlaq Dynasty: Territorial Zenith and Fragmentation (basic)

To understand the medieval political landscape of India, we must first look at the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). This era wasn't ruled by a single family but by five successive dynasties: the Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 2, p. 25. Among these, the Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE) represents a fascinating paradox: it was the period when the Sultanate reached its absolute territorial zenith, yet it was also the moment the seeds of its fragmentation were sown History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Chapter 12, p. 136.

The story begins with Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, who founded the dynasty in 1320 by following a policy of reconciliation with the nobility. However, the most famous (and controversial) figure of this era was his successor, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351). Under his rule, the Sultanate's borders stretched further than ever before. Virtually the entire Indian subcontinent—excluding only the extreme tips like Kashmir and Kerala—was under the direct rule of Delhi History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Chapter 12, p. 148. To manage this massive empire, the state imposed rigorous taxes, often claiming half the produce, and curtailed the power of local hereditary intermediaries like the chaudhuris and khots.

However, this vast expansion proved impossible to maintain. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign was plagued by political instability and local rebellions. The most significant blow to his authority came from the south. In 1336 CE, two brothers named Harihara and Bukka—who had previously been captured and forced into the Sultan's service—returned to the Deccan, renounced their forced conversion to Islam, and established the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Chapter 2, p. 31. This marked the beginning of the Sultanate's fragmentation, as distant provinces realized the center in Delhi could no longer effectively control them.

By the time Firuz Shah Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1351, the policy of aggressive expansion was dead. He shifted toward a conciliatory policy, restoring property to those deprived by his predecessor and reintroducing hereditary appointments to appease the nobility and theologians History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board), Chapter 12, p. 146. While this brought temporary internal peace, the era of an all-India empire centered in Delhi had passed.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.25, 31; History, Class XI (Tamilnadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Advent of Arabs and Turks / Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.136, 144, 146, 148

2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s Deccan Policy (intermediate)

To understand the political landscape of 14th-century India, one must look at the ambitious but turbulent Deccan Policy of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351). Unlike his predecessors who were often content with extracting tribute from southern kingdoms, Tughlaq sought direct administrative control over the Deccan. At its peak, his empire covered almost the entire subcontinent, excluding only the extreme ends like Kashmir and Kerala History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.148. This expansion was fueled by a rigorous fiscal system where land tax was set at half the produce and collected in cash, leading to the rapid growth of urban centers like Daulatabad and Gulbarga History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.149.

The centerpiece of this policy was the dramatic decision in 1327 to shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri, which he renamed Daulatabad. Strategically, Devagiri was centrally located and possessed a formidable rock-hewn fort, making it an ideal base to manage the southern provinces History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.145. However, the execution was harsh; he ordered the elite, including officers and Sufi saints, to migrate over 1,000 km. While this created a unique cultural bridge between North and South India, the forced migration caused immense suffering and loss of life Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27.

Ultimately, the policy backfired. The Sultan found it as difficult to control Delhi from the Deccan as it was to control the Deccan from Delhi. By the 1330s, widespread rebellions broke out. In the Telugu regions, the Musunuri Nayakas formed a massive confederacy of 75 chieftains, successfully defeating the Sultanate forces and expelling them from Warangal between 1330 and 1336 Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.29. This breakdown of central authority created a political vacuum that allowed for the rise of independent powers, most notably the Vijayanagara Empire (1336) and the Bahmani Kingdom (1347).

Sources: History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Advent of Arabs and Turks, p.145, 148, 149; Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.27, 29

3. The Disintegration of Central Authority (intermediate)

In the study of medieval statecraft, the disintegration of central authority is often a story of distance and overreach. For a central power like the Delhi Sultanate to maintain control over the distant Deccan and South India, it required an exceptionally strong military presence and a loyal bureaucracy. When the center weakened or became preoccupied with internal crises, provincial governors—who were meant to be mere agents of the sovereign—often transformed into independent rulers Introduction to the Constitution of India, D. D. Basu, THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, p.2.

The reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE) represents the ultimate tipping point in this process. While earlier rulers like Alauddin Khilji had successfully extracted wealth from the south, Tughlaq attempted more direct control, which backfired. His reign was characterized by political instability and a visible loss of grip over distant provinces Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.31. This vacuum allowed local leaders to assert their sovereignty. For instance, in 1335 CE, the Governor of Madurai, Jalaluddin Asan Shah, threw off his allegiance to Delhi and established the independent Madurai Sultanate History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Later Cholas and Pandyas, p.168.

The most significant consequence of this disintegration was the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE. Its founders, the brothers Harihara and Bukka, represent a fascinating case of shifting loyalties. Originally serving the Hoysala rulers, they were captured and taken to Delhi, where they were forced to serve the Tughlaq Sultanate and even convert to Islam. However, seeing the Sultanate’s authority crumbling in the south, they returned to the region, renounced their forced conversion, and established an independent kingdom at Hampi History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180. Their rise was not just a rebellion; it was a reclaiming of regional authority against a failing central state.

Sources: Introduction to the Constitution of India, D. D. Basu, THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, p.2; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.31; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Later Cholas and Pandyas, p.168; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180

4. The Bahmani Kingdom: Northern Rivalry (exam-level)

While the Bahmani Kingdom (est. 1347) is often remembered for its eternal struggle with the southern Vijayanagara Empire, its political life was equally shaped by intense rivalries to its north and east. To manage a kingdom that stretched across much of Maharashtra and Andhra, the founder, Alauddin Bahman Shah, implemented an administrative system inspired by the Delhi Sultanate. He divided the realm into four territorial divisions known as tarafs, each governed by a tarafdar. This decentralization was necessary because the Sultan was constantly engaged on multiple fronts, including clashes with the Gajapatis of Orissa and the rulers of Warangal in the east History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.176.

As the central authority of the Bahmani Sultans began to wane after the death of strong rulers and the influential Prime Minister Mahmud Gawan, the tarafdars (provincial governors) began to assert their independence. By the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the unified Bahmani state splintered into five independent principalities, collectively known as the Deccan Sultanates. These five states—Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Golkonda, and Bidar—became the new players in the Deccan power struggle THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.193.

The relationship between these five sultanates was a complex web of shifting alliances. While they often fought one another, they were capable of temporary unity when faced with a common threat. The most famous instance of this was in 1565, when the sultanates (excluding Berar) joined forces to decisively defeat the Vijayanagara Empire at the Battle of Talikota (also known as Rakshasi-Tangadi) History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.179. However, this victory was short-lived; within a century, these sultanates themselves were systematically annexed by the expanding Mughal Empire, particularly during the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.209.

Sultanate	Dynasty	Fate
Bijapur	Adil Shahi	Annexed Berar and Bidar; later fell to Mughals.
Ahmadnagar	Nizam Shahi	Resisted Mughals via Malik Ambar; annexed in 1636.
Golkonda	Qutb Shahi	Famous for diamonds and fort; fell to Aurangzeb.
Berar	Imad Shahi	The first to break away; later annexed by Ahmadnagar.
Bidar	Barid Shahi	The last remnant of the Bahmani core; annexed by Bijapur.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.176, 179; THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.193; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Mughal Empire, p.209

5. The Amaranayaka System vs. Iqta System (exam-level)

To understand the political strength of the Vijayanagara Empire, we must look at its backbone: the Amaranayaka system. This was a sophisticated military-administrative arrangement where the king (Raya) delegated territorial authority to military commanders known as Nayakas. As noted in historical records, this system was a "major political innovation" of the empire, yet it didn't emerge out of nowhere. It is widely believed that many of its features were adapted from the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175.

Under the Amaranayaka system, the Nayakas—who were often Telugu or Kannada-speaking military chiefs—were granted specific territories called amaram. In exchange for this land revenue, they were responsible for maintaining a disciplined contingent of horses, elephants, and soldiers. This provided the Vijayanagara kings with a massive, ready-to-use military force. These chiefs weren't just soldiers; they were also pioneers who moved into new areas, often accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land to settle Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175. This helped in the internal colonization and agricultural expansion of the kingdom.

While the Iqta system and the Amaranayaka system share the same DNA—both involve land grants in exchange for military service—there is a crucial evolution in how they functioned. In the Delhi Sultanate, Iqtas were generally transferable to prevent any single commander from building a local power base. However, in Vijayanagara, the Amaranayakas often managed to make their positions hereditary, establishing deep local roots that eventually led to the rise of independent Nayak kingdoms as the central authority weakened History, Class XI (TN State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.175.

Feature	Iqta System (Delhi Sultanate)	Amaranayaka System (Vijayanagara)
Key Official	Iqtadar / Muqti	Amaranayaka
Nature of Post	Ideally transferable to prevent local ties.	Often became hereditary over time.
Obligations	Revenue collection and military maintenance.	Revenue collection, military maintenance, and annual tribute/gifts to the King.
Cultural Role	Administrative/Revenue agents.	Agents of settlement, often helping peasants colonize new lands.

Sources: Themes in Indian History Part II, An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.175; History, Class XI (TN State Board), Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.175

6. Foundation of Vijayanagara: The Sangama Era (exam-level)

The foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE represents a pivotal shift in South Indian history, marking the rise of a consolidated Hindu power against the backdrop of the declining Delhi Sultanate. The empire was established by two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who were the eldest sons of Sangama—hence the first ruling line is known as the Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485 CE). Historical records suggest that the brothers were originally administrative officials under the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka. Following the capture of the Hoysala territories by the Delhi Sultanate, they were reportedly taken to Delhi and forced to convert to Islam. However, they later returned to the South, renounced their forced conversion under the spiritual guidance of the Saiva saint Vidyaranya (also known as Madhava), and asserted their independence History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board), Chapter 12, p.180.

The timing of this foundation was no accident. It occurred during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE), whose ambitious but often failed policies led to widespread political instability across the Deccan and South India. The vacuum left by the weakening Tughlaq authority and the death of the last great Hoysala king, Ballala III, allowed Harihara and Bukka to unify local principalities. According to popular folklore, the specific site of their capital at Hampi (on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River) was chosen after they witnessed a hare turning around to chase a pack of hounds—a symbol of unexpected courage that their guru, Vidyaranya, interpreted as an auspicious sign for a new capital Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, p.32.

While the Sangama brothers began as local chiefs, they quickly expanded their frontiers. To the north, they faced constant competition from the Bahmani Sultanate (founded shortly after in 1347 CE) and the Gajapatis of Orissa over fertile river valleys and lucrative trade routes Themes in Indian History Part II, Class XII, p.171. This era initiated a 300-year legacy where Vijayanagara became a bastion of South Indian culture and architecture, characterized by four successive dynasties:

Sources: History, Class XI (Tamil Nadu State Board 2024 ed.), Chapter 12: Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms, p.180; Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII (NCERT 2025 ed.), Chapter 2: Reshaping India’s Political Map, p.31-32; Themes in Indian History Part II, Class XII (NCERT 2025 ed.), An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara, p.171

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

This question masterfully connects two crucial pillars of Medieval Indian history: the chronology of the Delhi Sultanate and the rise of regional powers in South India. Having just explored the building blocks of the Tughlaq administrative crisis, you can see how political instability at the center directly triggered independence movements at the periphery. The founding of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka was not an isolated event; it was a direct consequence of the weakening grip of the Sultanate over the Deccan, as detailed in History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.) and Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Class VIII NCERT (2025 ed).

To identify the correct Sultan, you must match the founding date (1336 CE) to the specific regnal years of the Tughlaq dynasty. Since Muhammad bin Tughlaq reigned from 1325 to 1351 CE, his tenure perfectly overlaps with the emergence of the Vijayanagara principality. His reign was famously marked by "failed experiments" and rebellions, which provided the perfect vacuum for Harihara and Bukka—who were once in his service—to renounce their forced conversion and assert sovereignty. Therefore, (C) Muhammad bin Tughlaq is the only logical answer.

UPSC often uses the other options as chronological traps. Jalaluddin and Alauddin Khilji (Options A and B) are distractors because while they were the first to invade the South, their era (late 13th to early 14th century) was one of expansion rather than the fragmentation that birthed Vijayanagara. Similarly, Firoz Shah Tughlaq (Option D) only ascended the throne in 1351, long after the empire had already been established. Success in these questions depends on your ability to distinguish between the initial contact of the Khiljis and the structural collapse during the era of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.