In medieval India, during the reign of Shivaji, the role of the official called 'Chitnis' was to

1. The Rise of Maratha Swarajya and Administrative Ethos (basic)

The rise of the Maratha Empire under Chhatrapati Shivaji was not merely a military phenomenon but the birth of Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule), rooted in a distinct administrative ethos. This journey reached its symbolic and legal pinnacle on June 6, 1674, when Shivaji was coronated at the mountain fortress of Raigad. He assumed the title of 'Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati' and inaugurated his own era, the Rājyābhiṣheka shaka Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 3, p.67. This coronation was a statement of sovereignty, asserting that the Maratha state was an independent entity, no longer a subordinate to the Deccan Sultanates or the Mughal Empire History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.228. At the heart of Shivaji's governance was a revolutionary administrative ethos: centralization and professionalism. Unlike the prevailing feudal systems where officials held hereditary land grants (Jagirs), Shivaji aimed to pay his officers directly from the state treasury. This shift reduced the power of local intermediaries and ensured that the administration remained loyal to the throne rather than to their own estates. To manage this centralized state, he established the Ashta Pradhan, a council of eight ministers who acted as his primary advisors. One of the most critical roles in this council was that of the Chitnis (also known as the Sachiv or Surunavis). While the Peshwa handled general administration and the Sumant managed foreign affairs, the Chitnis was the backbone of the royal secretariat Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 3, p.72. His duties included:

• Drafting Royal Correspondence: Managing the flow of communication between the King and his officers or other states.
• Authenticating Documents: Ensuring that royal edicts, known as Sanads, were drafted correctly and bore the official seal.
• Secretarial Supervision: Overseeing the linguistic accuracy and diplomatic tone of state papers to maintain the dignity of the Swarajya.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.67, 72; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225, 227, 228

2. Maratha Revenue and Land Administration (intermediate)

To understand the Maratha state, one must look at its financial backbone. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s revenue system was revolutionary because it shifted the power from local hereditary landlords (Deshmukhs and Deshpandes) directly to the state. He sought to establish a direct relationship with the peasantry, a system often described as a precursor to the Ryotwari system. Instead of allowing intermediaries to exploit farmers, the state measured the land accurately using a standard measuring rod known as the Kathi. Land was classified based on its fertility and irrigation, ensuring that the tax burden was equitable. Initially, the state claimed 30% of the produce, which was later increased to 40% once various local taxes and cesses were abolished Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p. 72. Because the internal revenue from the rugged terrain of the Swarajya (homeland) was often insufficient to maintain a large standing army, the Marathas famously employed two external taxes levied on neighboring territories: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.

Feature	Chauth	Sardeshmukhi
Proportion	1/4th (25%) of the total revenue.	An additional 10% of the revenue.
Justification	Paid by non-Maratha territories to avoid Maratha raids (Protection Money).	Claimed by Shivaji as the hereditary Sardeshmukh (Chief Head) of the region.

History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.230. To manage this complex flow of wealth and land records, Shivaji relied on a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chitnis (also known as the Sachiv or Surunavis) was a central figure here. While the Majumdar (Amatya) acted as the Finance Minister keeping the accounts, the Chitnis was responsible for the royal correspondence and the authentication of all official documents, including land grants and tax edicts known as Sanads. This ensured that no local official could forge documents to embezzle funds. This transition from hereditary assignments to a system where officials were paid directly from the state treasury was the hallmark of Shivaji’s centralized administration Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p. 72.

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.72; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.230

3. Maratha Military Organization: Paiga and Silahdars (intermediate)

To understand the Maratha military, we must first look at the geography that shaped it. The rugged terrain of the Konkan and the Western Ghats necessitated a mobile, disciplined force capable of guerrilla warfare History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225. While the Marathas were famous for their infantry (Mavalis), the backbone of their expansion was the cavalry. Under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the cavalry was strictly organized into two distinct categories to ensure both state control and a ready supply of manpower.

The first category was the Paiga (also known as Bargirs). These were the standing army of the state. In the Paiga system, the state provided the horse, the weaponry, and the equipment to the soldier. Because the state bore the expenses, these soldiers were under the direct supervision of the central administration and were paid a regular salary from the state treasury. This was a significant departure from the older feudal systems where soldiers were often dependent on local landlords. The Paiga represented the professional, highly disciplined core of the Maratha military machine.

The second category consisted of the Silahdars. Unlike the Paiga, Silahdars were essentially "independent contractors" or military entrepreneurs. They brought their own horses and weapons to the service of the state. While they were paid for their service during campaigns, they were responsible for the upkeep of their own equipment and mounts. This allowed the Maratha state to rapidly scale up its army during times of war without the constant burden of maintaining a massive stable of horses during peacetime.

Feature	Paiga (Bargir)	Silahdar
Ownership	Horses/Arms provided by the State	Owned by the individual soldier
Status	Direct state employees	Contractual/Independent
Maintenance	Paid for by the Royal Treasury	Self-maintained

As the Maratha Empire transitioned into the era of the Peshwas, the military organization began to adopt more features of the Mughal system, particularly in terms of recruitment and the provision of salaries History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.236. However, the foundational division between state-equipped (Paiga) and self-equipped (Silahdar) troops remained a defining characteristic of Maratha power as they expanded across the Indian subcontinent.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225; History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.236

4. Comparative Medieval Administration: Mughals vs Marathas (exam-level)

To understand the Maratha administration, we must view it as a sophisticated response to the grand, but often rigid, Mughal system. While the Mughal Empire relied on the Mansabdari system—a hierarchy of rank-holders who were often paid through land grants (Jagirs)—Shivaji Maharaj initially broke this cycle by moving toward a centralized bureaucracy where officials were paid directly from the state treasury to prevent the rise of local power centers Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.72. At the heart of this was the Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight), where the Chitnis (also known as the Surunavis or Sachiv) played a pivotal role. Unlike the Mughal Wazir who held vast executive powers, the Chitnis was specifically the 'Master of Correspondence,' responsible for drafting royal edicts (Sanads) and authenticating state documents to ensure the King's direct control over provincial administrators.

The military philosophies of the two empires were also starkly different. The Mughals were masters of 'conventional warfare,' utilizing heavy cavalry and massive artillery units (cannons) that required flat terrain to be effective. In contrast, the Marathas utilized the precipitous mountains and impregnable hill-forts of the Konkan and Western Ghats to pioneer Guerrilla warfare History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225. This 'hit-and-run' tactic allowed them to neutralize the Mughal advantage in numbers and firepower. However, it is fascinating to note that as the Marathas expanded into a Pan-Indian power under the Peshwas, they began to adopt many Mughal practices, including their modes of recruitment and salary structures, to manage a larger, more diverse professional army History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.236.

As the Mughal center weakened, the Maratha administrative spirit evolved from defensive survival to northward expansion. Figures like Tarabai acted as strategic architects, recognizing that the Mughal absence in North India during Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns created a power vacuum Exploring Society:India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.78. This shift transformed the Maratha state from a focused kingdom into a sprawling Confederacy. While this expansion brought glory, it also introduced centrifugal tendencies—a lack of cooperation between various Maratha chiefs (like the Holkars and Scindias)—which stood in contrast to the absolute, if sometimes brittle, authority once held by the Mughal Emperors Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM, Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.108.

Feature	Mughal Administration	Maratha Administration (Early)
Core Philosophy	Centralized Imperialism (Mansabdari)	Swarajya (Self-rule) & Ashta Pradhan
Payment of Officials	Mostly Jagirs (Land grants)	Cash salaries from the Treasury
Military Strength	Heavy Artillery & Massive Cavalry	Guerrilla Warfare & Light Infantry
Secretarial Control	Handled by various Diwans	Chitnis (Surunavis) for Royal Edicts

Sources: Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025), The Rise of the Marathas, p.72, 78; History , class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.225, 236; Rajiv Ahir. A Brief History of Modern India (2019 ed.). SPECTRUM, Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India, p.108

5. The Ashta Pradhan: The Council of Eight Ministers (exam-level)

To understand the Maratha Empire, one must look at its engine: the Ashta Pradhan. This was a council of eight ministers established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj to streamline administration. Unlike modern cabinets where ministers might have independent political power, the Ashta Pradhan was primarily advisory in nature; the final authority always rested with the King History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.229. Shivaji’s most significant reform here was shifting away from the old system of hereditary land grants (Jagirs). Instead, these ministers were paid in cash from the state treasury, ensuring their loyalty was to the throne rather than to their own landed estates. Each minister held a specific portfolio essential for a burgeoning state. The council was led by the Peshwa (or Mukhya Pradhan), who acted as a Prime Minister, overseeing general administration and officiating for the King when necessary. While the Amatya (Finance Minister) managed the state's accounts, another pivotal role was that of the Chitnis (also known as the Sachiv or Surunavis). The Chitnis served as the King's chief secretary, responsible for drafting royal edicts (Sanads) and ensuring that all official correspondence was authenticated and dispatched correctly. This ensured that the King's centralized control was felt across every corner of the administration.

The table below summarizes the core members of this council:

Title	Common Name	Primary Responsibility
Mukhya Pradhan	Peshwa	General administration and state welfare.
Amatya	Majumdar	Finance and accounts; countersigned all public records.
Waqi’a Nawis	Mantri	Intelligence, court proceedings, and King's daily diary.
Surunavis / Sachiv	Chitnis	Royal correspondence and secretarial duties.
Dabir	Sumant	Foreign affairs and master of ceremonies.
Sari-Naubat	Senapati	Military commander and recruitment.
Panditrao	—	Religious matters and charities.
Nyayadhish	—	Civil and military justice.

Sources: History, class XI (Tamilnadu state board 2024 ed.), The Marathas, p.229

6. The Royal Secretariat: Chitnis and Waqia-Nawis (exam-level)

At the heart of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s administrative genius was a highly organized Royal Secretariat. This was not merely a clerical office but the nerve center that translated the King's vision into binding state orders. Two pivotal figures in the Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight) handled the flow of information: the Chitnis and the Waqia-Nawis. Their roles were designed to ensure that the central government maintained absolute control over distant provinces, preventing the rise of independent local power centers that had plagued earlier Indian kingdoms.

The Chitnis (also known as the Surunavis or Sachiv) functioned as the Chief Secretary of the state. His primary responsibility was the management of royal correspondence. Every official letter, diplomatic note, and royal edict (known as Sanads) had to be meticulously drafted and authenticated by him. Using the Moḍī script—a specialized cursive form of Devanagari—the Chitnis ensured that the King’s commands were transmitted accurately across the realm Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.79. By centralizing the issuance of Sanads, Shivaji moved away from the chaotic system of hereditary assignments, ensuring that all officials were directly accountable to the central treasury Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.72.

Parallel to this was the Waqia-Nawis (or Mantri), who acted as the King’s chronicler and intelligence chief. While the Chitnis looked outward toward the administration, the Waqia-Nawis looked inward and upward. He kept a detailed daily record of the King's activities and court proceedings, ensuring a historical and legal log of every royal decision. Furthermore, he was responsible for the King’s personal safety, the royal household, and the intelligence department, which allowed Shivaji to stay ahead of both internal conspiracies and external threats from the Mughals or Deccan Sultanates.

Feature	Chitnis (Sachiv)	Waqia-Nawis (Mantri)
Primary Focus	State Correspondence & Edicts	Intelligence & Daily Chronicles
Key Output	Drafting and authenticating Sanads	Maintaining the court diary (Waqia)
Scope	Administrative/External Edicts	Household/Internal Security

Sources: Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT (Revised ed 2025), Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas, p.72, 79

7. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

Now that you have mastered the building blocks of the Maratha administrative framework, you can see how the Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight) functioned as a cohesive unit of governance. The role of the Chitnis (also known as the Surunavis or Sachiv) was central to Shivaji's move away from decentralized, hereditary power toward a merit-based, centralized state. As you recall from our study of civilian administration, this official acted as the King's administrative backbone, ensuring that every Sanad (royal edict) and official letter was drafted with precision and authenticated with the royal seal. This leads us directly to the correct answer: (D) Be assisting the king with his correspondence.

To navigate this question effectively, use the process of elimination by mapping the other titles you learned to their specific functions. Option (C) refers to the Sumant (or Dabir), who served as the master of ceremonies and handled foreign diplomacy. Option (B) describes the Waqi’a Nawis (or Mantri), who was responsible for internal intelligence and keeping the daily record of court proceedings. Finally, Option (A) refers to the military administration under the Sarnobat (Senapati) or the specialized Mawali guards. By distinguishing these functional specializations, you can avoid the common UPSC trap of mixing up contemporary administrative roles within the same council.

As highlighted in Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Social Science, Class VIII, NCERT (Revised ed 2025), the Chitnis was not just a clerk but a vital secretarial officer who maintained state documents and validated the king's commands. Remember: whenever you see administrative terms in the exam, look for the 'functional' keyword—for the Chitnis, that keyword is 'correspondence' or 'secretarial duties.' This clarity helps you stay focused when multiple options seem plausible within the same historical context.